HISTORY   OF   THE 
HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH 


MODERN  PALESTINE 

WITH 

Ancient  Towns  and  Highways 


)  and  Highways  in  red 


A 


r 


HISTORY  OF  THE  HEBREW 
COMMONWEALTH 


BY 

ALBERT  EDWARD   BAILEY,  A.M. 

DIRECTOR   OF   RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION   IN    WORCESTER   ACADEMY 

AND 

CHARLES    FOSTER    KENT,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D. 

WOOLSEY    PROFESSOR   OF    BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   IN    YALE    UNIVERSITY 


WITH    MAPS   AND    ILLUSTRATIONS 


CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S   SONS 

NEW    YORK  CHICAGO  BOSTON 


Copyright,  1920,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


PREFACE 

No  chapter  in  human  history  is  more  thrilling  than  that 
which  records  the  long  struggle  of  the  Hebrews  for  inde- 
pendence, for  a  home,  for  power,  for  their  religious  and  social 
ideals  and  for  the  perpetuation  of  their  institutions.  It  begins 
with  their  grinding  industrial  enslavement  by  Egypt  and  ends 
with  the  heroic  though  vain  effort  to  break  the  iron  shackles 
of  Rome.  In  the  face  of  bitter  opposition  they  developed 
the  first  democratic  state  known  to  history.  Through  centu- 
ries of  foreign  oppression  and  persecution  they  clung  to  their 
democratic  ideals  until  at  last  the  whole  world  is  beginning 
to  appreciate  and  appropriate  them. 

The  aim  in  this  volume  is  to  present  the  facts  that  are 
essential  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  growth  and  mean- 
ing of  these  ideals  and  of  the  matchless  literature  that  records 
them.  The  study  of  each  period  gathers  about  the  personali- 
ties of  prophets  and  patriots  like  Moses,  David,  Elijah,  Amos, 
and  Nehemiah,  who  not  only  represented  their  age  but  also 
largely  guided  its  development.  The  rich  contributions  of 
geography  and  archaeology  have  been  freely  drawn  upon 
to  make  that  ancient  history  vivid  and  real.  For  each 
chapter  detailed  suggestions  are  provided  for  the  guidance 
of  teachers  of  college,  secondary  school,  and  intermediate 
classes,  inasmuch  as  the  volume  is  intended  for  those  who 
wish  to  work  as  well  as  for  the  general  reader. 

The  authors  are  deeply  indebted  to  Professor  Ira  M.  Price 


2086596 


vi  PREFACE 

of  the  University  of  Chicago,  who  as  a  representative  of  the 
Commission  on  Standardization  of  Bible  Courses  for  Secondary 
Schools  has  read  the  proofs  of  this  volume,  and  to  the  many 
scholars,  authors,  and  publishers  who  have  generously  offered 
the  use  of  their  plates  and  photographs  in  order  to  make  it 
possible  to  produce  a  thoroughly  equipped  text-book. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

I.    The  World  in  Which  the  Hebrews  Lived 1 

1.  Extent  of  the  Hebrew  World.  2.  Its  Nature.  3. 
Its  Peoples.  4.  The  Egyptians.  5.  The  Arabian  Group. 
6.  The  Amorites.  7.  The  Babylonians.  8.  The  Hebrews. 
9.  The  Role  of  the  Coast  Land.  10.  Our  Heritage  from 
the  Hebrew  World. 


II.    The   Rediscovery  op  the  Hebrew  World....     15 

11.  The  Dust  of  Time.  12.  The  Rediscovery  of  the 
Bible.  13.  The  Egyptian  Records.  14.  The  Baby- 
lonian and  Assyrian  Records.  15.  The  Land  of  Pales- 
tine.    16.  Other  Sources. 


III.  The  Cradle  of  Democracy 25 

17.  The  Biblical  Account  of  the  Egyptian  Sojourn.  18. 
Confirmations  of  the  Biblical  Account.  19.  The  Pharaoh 
of  the  Oppression.  20.  The  Land  of  Goshen.  21.  The 
Disastrous  End  of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty.  22.  The 
True  Significance  of  the  Bondage  and  Exodus. 

IV.  The  School  of  the  Wilderness 37 

23.  The  Route  to  Mount  Sinai.  24.  The  Covenant  at 
Mount  Sinai.  25.  Canaan  and  the  Wishful  Eye.  26. 
The  Gifts  of  the  Wilderness.  27.  The  First  Foothold  in 
Palestine.     28.  Moses  the  First  Great  Hebrew. 


V.    The  Home  of  the  Hebrews 47 

29.  The    Eastern    Shelf.     30.  The    Great    Trench.     31. 
The  Central  Roof.     32.  The  Western  Meadows. 


VI.    The  Struggle  for  a  Home 59 

33.  Canaanite  Palestine.  34.  A  Canaanite  City.  35. 
The  Capture  of  Jericho.  36.  The  Accounts  of  Other 
Conquests.     37.  The  Stories  Interpreted. 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

VII.  The  Struggle  for  Independence 69 

38.  Israel's  Dangerous  Position.  39.  Jehovah's  Rival. 
40.  The  Narratives  in  Judges  and  their  Religious  Teach- 
ings. 41.  The  Moabite  Oppression.  42.  The  Canaanite 
Oppression.  43.  The  Midianite  Oppression.  44.  The 
Ammonite  Oppression.  45.  The  Philistine  Oppression. 
46.  The  Samson  Hero  Tales.  47.  The  Result  of  the 
Oppressions. 


VIII.     Democracy  under  Samuel  and  Saul 85 

48.  The  Philistine  Domination.  49.  Samuel  the  Seer. 
50.  Saul's  Vigorous  Beginning.  51.  The  Bold  Strike 
for  Freedom.  52.  Saul's  Break  with  Samuel.  53.  The 
Rise  of  David.  54.  The  Tragedy  of  Gilboa.  55.  Saul's 
Character. 


IX.     David  the  Organizer  of  the  Hebrew  State  ...     99 

56.  The  Vassal  Fragments  of  Israel.  57.  The  Nature  of 
the  Hebrew  Kingship.  58.  David  the  Strategist.  59. 
David  the  Conqueror.  60.  David  the  Organizer.  61. 
David  the  Grand  Monarch.     62.  David  the  Devotee. 


X.     David's  Waning  Popularity Ill 

63.  The  Approach  of  Nemesis.  64.  Absalom's  "Way- 
wardness and  Ambitions.  65.  Absalom's  Rebellion  and 
Death.  66.  The  King's  Folly.  67.  The  Famine  and  the 
Plague.  68.  The  Intrigues  for  the  Succession.  69.  Sum- 
mary of  David's  Character  and  Reign. 


XI.    Solomon  the  Autocrat 122 

70.  Solomon's  Sinister  Beginning.  71.  His  Policy  of 
Magnificence.  72.  Territorial  Losses  and  Their  Result. 
73.  The  Organization  of  His  System.  74.  Solomon's 
Building  Enterprises.  75.  The  Palace.  76.  The  Temple. 
77.  Solomon's  Ventures  in  High  Finance.  78.  Solomon's 
Reputation  for  Wisdom.  79.  His  Legacy  of  Idolatry. 
80.  Solomon's  Death. 


XII.     The  Revolt  against  Autocracy 139 

81.  The  Popular  Recoil.  82.  Jeroboam's  Training.  83. 
Causes  and  Consequences  of  the  Division.  84.  Civil  War 
and  Invasion.  85.  The  Royal  Sanctuaries.  86.  Biblical 
Estimates  of  Character. 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE 

XIII.  Experiments  with  Military  Despots 149 

87.  Enter  the  Sword  and  Dagger.  88.  Omri  the  Soldier- 
King.  89.  The  New  Capital.  90.  Omri's  Foreign  Rela- 
tions. 91.  Ahab's  Reign.  92.  Jehoshaphat  of  Judah. 
93.  Ahab  and  his  Northern  Neighbors.  94.  Ahab's 
Death. 

XIV.  Fighting  the  Phoenician  Propaganda 159 

95.  Ahab's  Evil  Genius.  96.  What  Baalism  Meant. 
97.  Jehovah's  Champion.     98.  The  People's  Champion. 

99.  Elijah's  Limitations. 

XV.     The  People's  Bloody  Executioner 169 

100.  A"  Patriotic  Revolution.  101.  The  Character  of 
Elisha.  102.  Elisha  the  Revolutionist.  103.  The  Ripen- 
ing Plot.  104.  Jehu  the  Reckless.  105.  Athaliah's  Brief 
Usurpation  in  Judah.  106.  The  Bloody  Slaughter.  107. 
Estimates  of  Jehu's  Work.  108.  The  Revolution  in 
Judah.     109.  The  Bitter  Fruits  of  Jehu's  Revolution. 

XVI.    The  Protest  against  Greed  and  Privilege...   181 

110.  The  Power  of  the  Priests  in  Judah.  111.  The 
Reigns  of  Jehoahaz  and  Jehoash.  112.  The  Strong 
Policy  of  Uzziah  of  Judah.  113.  Israel's  Indian  Sum- 
mer. 114.  A  Glance  beneath  the  Surface.  115. 
Preachers  of  Social  Righteousness. 

XVII.     The  Collapse  of  the  Northern  State 192 

116.  The  Reign  of  Anarchy.  117.  Menahem's  Rule. 
118.  The  Puppet  Kings  of  Judah.  119.  The  Last  King 
of  Northern  Israel.  120.  The  Significance  of  Israel's 
FaU. 

XVIII.    Judah's  Narrow  Escape 200 

121.  The  Shadow  of  Assyria.  122.  Hezekiah  a  Near- 
Rebel.  123.  Isaiah's  Warning.  124.  Hezekiah's  Sick- 
ness and  World  Politics.  125.  On  the  Verge  of  Destruc- 
tion.    126.  Isaiah's  Vindication. 

XLX.     The  Demand  for  Clean  Politics  and  Religion.  210 

127.  Accumulated  Rubbish.  128.  The  Protests  of 
Isaiah  and  Micah.  129.  The  Temple  Cleansed.  130. 
The  Deeper  Reformation.  131.  The  Great  Test.  132. 
Summary  of  Isaiah's  Work  and  Character. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

XX.     The  Return  to  Heathenism 221 

133.  Assyria  the  World  Overlord.  134.  Assyria  the 
Heir  of  Babylon.  135.  Enter  the  Host  of  Heaven. 
136.  Re-enter  the  Old  Gods.  137.  The  Underlying 
Reasons  for  the  Reaction.  138.  Manasseh's  Shame  and 
God's  Opportunity. 

XXI.    Judah's  New  Democratic  Constitution 230 

139.  The  Reformers'  Fresh  Grip.  140.  The  Scythian 
Scare.  141.  The  Happy  Find.  142.  The  Great  Re- 
form. 143.  The  Abolition  of  the  High  Places.  144. 
The  Feasts  Centralized.  145.  Love  the  Principle  of  Re- 
ligion and  Conduct.  146.  Crumbling  Empires.  147. 
The  Death  of  Josiah. 

XXII.     The  Road  to  Ruin 239 

148.  The  Overthrow  of  Democracy.  149.  The  Doom  of 
Nineveh.  150.  Jehoiakim's  Treason.  151.  Jeremiah  the 
Faithful  Counsellor.  152.  The  First  Deportation.  153. 
The  Left-overs.  154.  A  Vacillating  King.  155.  The 
Fatal  Revolt.  156.  The  Capture  and  Destruction  of 
Jerusalem.     157.  Judah  Becomes  a  Babylonian  Colony. 

158.  Jeremiah's  Career. 

XXIII.  Transformations  by  the  Rivers  of  Babylon.  . .  252 

159.  The  Scattered  Nation;   the  Palestinian  Fragment. 

160.  The  Egyptian  Fragment.  161.  The  Home  of  the 
Exiles  in  Babylonia.  162.  Their  Cultural  Environment. 
163.  Their  Religious  Transformation.  164.  Biblical  Tes- 
timony to  the  Change.  165.  The  Master  Mind  of  the 
Exile.  166.  The  Literary  Activity  of  the  Exile.  167. 
The  Rise  of  the  Synagogue. 

XXIV.  Cyrus  and  the  Faithful  Patriots 267 

168.  The  Rise  of  Cyrus.  169.  The  Policy  of  Cyrus. 
170.  The  Remnant  of  Judah.  171.  The  First  Return. 
172.  Jehovah-Worship  Re-established.  173.  The  Strug- 
gle for  a  Temple.  174.  Zerubbabel's  Hopes.  175. 
What  the  Temple  Meant.  176.  The  Psalms  of  the 
Second  Temple. 

XXV.    The  Sufferings  of  the  Faithful 277 

177.  Palestine  again  Oppressed.  178.  Nehemiah  to  the 
Rescue.  179.  His  Efficiency  and  Bravery.  180.  Nehe- 
miah's  Reforms.  181.  The  Ezra  Tradition.  182.  The 
Religious  Interpreters  of  Judah's  Suffering.  183.  The 
Second  Isaiah. 


CONTENTS 


XI 


XXVI.     The  Church  Absorbs  the  State. 286 

184.  The  Last  Century  of  Persian  Rule.  185.  Organ- 
ization and  Income  of  the  Priests.  186.  The  Written 
Law.  187.  The  Scribes.  188.  The  Jews  outside  Judea. 
189.  The  Book  of  Esther.  190.  The  Influence  of  the 
Dispersion  on  Judaism.  191.  The  Samaritan  Schism. 
192.  Changes  in  Language  and  Thought.  193.  Tenden- 
cies in  the  Persian  Period. 

XXVII.    When  Greek  Meets  Jew 295 

194.  The  Coming  of  Alexander.  J  95.  His  Successors. 
196.  The  Fate  of  Palestine.  197.  The  Meaning  of 
Hellenism.  198.  Its  City  Organization.  199.  Its 
Love  of  Life  and  Amusements.  200.  Greek  Art  and 
Architecture.  201.  Greek  Language  and  Literature. 
202.  Greek  Manners  and  Customs.  203.  Hellenism  and 
Judaism. 

XXVIII.    The  Death-Grapple  for  Religious  Freedom  . . .  305 

204.  The  Rise  of  the  Pious.  205.  The  Villain  of  the 
Play.  206.  The  First  Move  against  Judaism.  207. 
Further  Irritations.  208.  The  Abomination  of  Desola- 
tion. 209.  Biblical  Echoes  of  the  Great  Scourging. 
210.  Mattathias  and  His  Sons.  211.  The  Open  Revolt 
and  the  Unequal  Contest.  212.  The  Four  Victories. 
213.  The  Temple  Restored.  214.  The  Hammerer's 
Further  Blows.     215.  Psalms  of  Victory. 

XXIX.     The  Heroic  Age  and  the  Unheroic 318 

216.  The  Attainment  of  Religious  Freedom.  217.  The 
Death  of  Judas.  218.  Jonathan's  Struggles.  219.  Polit- 
ical Independence  at  Last.  220.  Simon's  Untimely 
Death.  221.  New  Ambitions.  222.  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees.  223.  The  Wreckers  of  the  Jewish  De- 
mocracy.    224.  The  Fatal  Struggle  between  Brothers. 

XXX.     The  Descent  of  the  Roman  Eagles 327 

225.  The  Shadow  of  Rome.  226.  Pompey  the  Dictator. 
227.  Fighting  the  Inevitable.  228.  The  Schemes  of 
Antipater.  229.  Herod  the  Tight-Rope  Walker.  230. 
Herod's  Sudden  Rise  to  Power.  231.  Jewish  Hopes  and 
Fears. 


XXXI.    Herod  of  the  Iron  Hand 333 

232.  The  Personality  of  Herod.  233.  His  Early  Cruel- 
ties. 234.  His  Political  Shrewdness.  235.  His  Hellen- 
ism. 236.  His  Judaism.  237.  The  Temple  of  Herod. 
238.  Herod's  Last  Years.     239.  The  Effect  of  his  Reign. 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


XXXII.     Rome's  Death  Thrust 345 

240.  The  Palestine  of  Jesus'  Day.  241.  The  Reign  "of 
Herod  Agrippa  I.  242.  Herod  Agrippa  II  and 
the  Apostle  Paul.  243.  The  Great  Rebellion.  244. 
The  Siege  of  Jerusalem.  245.  Horrors  of  the  Siege. 
246.  The  Final  Assault.  247.  The  Last  Agonies.  248. 
Israel's  Troubled  History.  249.  Israel's  Priceless  Gifts 
to  the  World. 

XXXIII.    The  Long,  Long  Exile 357 

250.  In  Roman  Times.  251.  In  the  East  before  the 
Middle  Ages.  252.  In  Spain  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
253.  In  the  Rest  of  Europe.  254.  The  Turn  of  the 
Tide.     255.  The  Zionist  Hopes. 


Appendix 

i.  suggestions  to  teachers 369 

ii.  suggestions  for  detailed  work 375 

iii.  map  index  of  important  geographic 

NAMES 395 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.  1.      Desert  and  Oasis 2 

Fig.  2.      Nile  Valley 4 

Fig.  3.      Steppe  Land 5 

Fig.  4.      Amorites 7 

From  the  Jewish  Encyclopaedia.  Courtesy  of  Funk  &  Wag- 
nails  Co. 

Fig.  5.      Babylonia  :  Ezra's  Tomb 8 

Fig.  6.      A  Group  of  Syrians  or  Arameans 9 

From  Price:  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy 
of  the  author  and  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society. 

Fig.  7.      The  Syrian  Valley 10 

Fig.  8.      Tigris  Valley  at  Nineveh 12 

Fig.  9.      A  Group  of  Arameans 13 

From  Price:  Monuments  of  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy 
of  the  author  and  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society. 

Fig.  10.    The  Hieroglyphic  Alphabet 16 

From  Budge:  Nile  Handbook.  Courtesy  of  Thomas  Cook 
&  Son. 

Fig.  11.    The  Rosetta  Stone 18 

Fig.  12.    Inscription  at  Behistun 21 

From  Price:  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy 
of  the  author  and  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society. 

Fig.  13.    Mound  of  Lachish 22 

xiii 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig,  1  1.     Earliest  Mention  of  Israel 26 

From  Budge:   Nile  Handbook.     Courtesy  of  Thomas  Cook 
&  Son. 

Fig.  15.     Brick-Making 27 

From  Clay:    Light  on  the  Old  Testament.     Courtesy  of  the 
author  and  The  Sunday  School  Times. 

Fig  L6.     Brick  of  Ramses  II 28 

From  Bible  Illustrations.     Courtesy  of  Oxford  University 
Press. 

Fig.  1 7.     Head  of  Ramses  II 29 

From   Breasted:    History   of  Egypt.     Courtesy  of  the  au- 
thor. 

Fig.  18.  Abu  Simbel 31 

Fig.  19.  M*.p  of  Goshen 33 

Fig.  20.  Store  Chambers  at  Pithom 34 

Pig.  21.  Victorious  Hymn  of  Merneptah 35 

Fig.  22.  Names  of  Ramses  II ". 36 

Fig.  23.  Mount  Sinai 3S 

Fig.  24.  Monastery  of  Saint  Catherine 40 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  25.    Scene  of  the  Fight  with  Amalek 42 

Fig.  26.    Bedouin  Tents  Near  Mount  Sinai 43 

Fig.  27.    Moses  by  Michelangelo 45 

Fig.  28.    Mount  Nebo 48 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  29.    In  the  Dead  Sea 49 

Fig.  30.    Bad  Lands  of  the  Jordan  Valley 50 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  31.     The  Watershed  of  JudEa 52 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  the  Friends'  School  at  Ramallah. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 

PAGE 

Fig.  32.    Mizpah 53 

Fig.  33.    The  Wilderness  of  Judea 55 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  34.    The  Gardens  of  Jaffa 56 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  35.    Summit  of  Mount  Her.mon 57 

Fig.  36.     Philistine  Prisoners  of  Ramses  III 60 

From    Breasted:    History    of  Egypt.      Courtesy    of    the 
author. 

Fig.  37.    Wall  and  Ruins  of  Jericho 61 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  38.    Stone  Pillars  of  Gezer 63 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Doctor  S.  U.  Mitman. 

Fig.  39.    Letter  from  the  King  of  Jerusalem 67 

Fig.  40.    Vineyard  of  Hebron 70 

Fig.  41.    A  Threshing-Floor 71 

From  Illustrated  Bible  Dictionary.    Courtesy  of  E.  P.  Dut- 
ton  &  Co. 

Fig.  42.    A  Threshing  Sledge 73 

From  the  Standard  Bible  Dictionary.     Courtesy  of  Funk 
&  Wagnalls  Co. 

Fig.  43.    Winnowing 75 

From  Illustrated  Bible  Dictionary.    Courtesy  of  E.  P.  Dut- 
ton  &  Co. 

Fig.  44.    Mount  Tabor 76 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  45.    Plain  of  Esdraelon 77 

Fig.  46.    Underground  Wine-Press 79 

Fig.  47.    Gideon's  Fountain 80 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  48.    A  Loom 83 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.  49.    Shiloh 86 

Fig.  50.    Gorge  of  Michmash 89 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  51.    Vale  of  Elah 92 

Fig.  52.    Entrance  to  Cave  of  Adullam 93 

Fig.  53.    Valley  of  Jezreel  and  Mount  Gilboa 96 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  54.    Hebron 100 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  55.    Plain  of  Rephaim 103 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Doctor  S.  U.  Mitman. 

Fig.  56.    Rock  Cuttings  under  the  Jebusite  Fortress.  . . .     104 

From  the  Standard  Bible  Dictionary.     Courtesy  of  Funk 
&  Wagnalls  Co. 

Fig.  57.    Sacred  Ark 108 

From  Bible  Illustrations.     Courtesy  of  Oxford  University 
Press. 

Fig.  58.    Model  of  the  Temple  Area 112 

Fig.  59.    Tomb  of  Absalom  and  Mount  of  Olives 115 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  60.    Collection  of  Taxes 124 

From    Breasted:    History    of    Egypt.       Courtesy    of    the 
author. 

Fig.  61.    A  Grove  of  Cedars 126 

From  the  Standard  Bible  Dictionary.     Courtesy  of  Funk 
&  "Wagnalls  Co. 

Fig.  62.    Plan  of  Solomon's  Palace 127 

Fig.  63.    A  Cedar  of  Lebanon 129 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  64.    Jaffa 130 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  65.    Solomon's  Temple  Compared  with  Temple  of  Edfu.     131 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

PAGE 

Fig.  66.    Cross   and   Longitudinal  Sections   of   Solomon's 

Temple 132 

Fig.  67.    Phoenician  Galley 133 

From  the  Illustrated  Bible  Dictionary.     Courtesy  of  E.  P. 
Dutton  &  Co. 

Fig.  68.    Expedition  to  Pint 134 

From    Breasted:     History    of  Egypt.       Courtesy    of    the 
author. 

Fig.  69.    Scenes  in  the  Land  of  Punt 136 

Fig.  70.    The  Princess  of  Lebanon  Felling  Trees  for  Seti  I 

of  Egypt 138 

From  Jeremias:   Old  Testament  in  Light  of  the  Ancient  East. 
Courtesy  of  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  publishers. 

Fig.  71.     Nablus — Ancient  Shechem 140 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  72.     Inscription  of  Shishak 142 

Fig.  73.     Cities  Captured  by  Shishak 144 

From  Ball:  Light  from  the  East.    Courtesy  of  Eyre  &  Spot- 
tiswoode. 

Fig.  74.     "The  Field  of  Abram" 146 

From    Breasted:    History    of    Egypt.       Courtesy    of    the 
author. 

Fig.  75.    The  Hathor  Cow 147 

Photograph  of  the  Cairo  Museum. 
Fig.  76.     Name  of  Shish\k 148 

From  Bible  Illustrations.     Courtesy  of  Oxford  University 
Press. 

Fig.  77.    Moabite  Stone 151 

Fig.  78.     The  Hill  of  Samaria 153 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  79.     Damascus 155 

Fig.  80.     Damascus  from  Within 157 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Doctor  S.  L*.  Mitman. 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.  81.    Map  of  Tyre 161 

From  Bury :  History  of  Greece.    Courtesy  of  Macmillan  Co. 

Fig.  82.    Rock  of  Burning,  Mount  Carmel 163 

Fig.  83.    Mount  Carmel  and  the  Sea 164 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  84.    Ruins  at  Samaria 167 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  David  G.  Lyon. 

Fig.  85.    The  Great  Mosque  of  Damascus 171 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Doctor  S.  U.  Mitman. 

Fig.  86.    Black  Obelisk  of  Shalmaneser  III 176 

From  Clay:  Light  on  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy  of  the 
author  and  The  Sunday  School  Times 

Fig.  87.    Tribute  of  Jehu 178 

From  Price:  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy 
of  the  author  and  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society. 

Fig.  88.    Tribute  of  Jehu 179 

From  Price:  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy 
of  the  author  and  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society. 

Fig.  89.    Egyptian  Chair 183 

Photograph  of  the  Cairo  Museum. 

Fig.  90.    Diadems  of  a  Twelfth  Dynasty  Princess  Found 

in  Her  Tomb  at  Dashur 185 

From  Breasted:  History  of  Egypt.  Courtesy  of  the 
author. 

Fig.  91.    Weighing  Gold 187 

From  Illustrated  Bible  Dictionary.  Courtesy  of  E.  P.  Dut- 
ton  &  Co. 

Fig.  92.     Bethel 189 

Fig.  93.     Sargon  and  His  Vizier 194 

From  Clay:  Light  on  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy  of  the 
author  and  The  Sunday  School  Times. 

Fig.  94.    Sargon's  Palace,  Restored 195 

From  Price:  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy 
of  the  author  and  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

PAGE 

Fig.  95.    Colossus  from  Sargon's  Palace 197 

Fig.  96.    Hebrew  Captives 198 

From  Jewish  Encyclopedia.     Courtesy  of  Funk  &  Wag- 
nails  Co. 

Fig.  97.    Name  of  Sargon 199 

From  Bible  Illustrations.     Courtesy  of  Oxford  University 
Press. 

Fig.  98.    The  Siloam  Tunnel 201 

From  Standard  Bible  Dictionary.     Courtesy   of  Funk  & 
WagnaUs  Co. 

Fig.  99.    Siloam  Inscription 203 

Fig.  100.    Text  of  the  Siloam  Inscription '  204 

From  Standard  Bible  Dictionary.     Courtesy  of  Funk  & 
Wagnalls  Co. 

Fig.  101.    Cylinder  of  Sennacherib 207 

From  Clay:    Light  on  the  Old  Testament.     Courtesy  of 
the  author  and  The  Sunday  School  Times. 

Fig.  102.    Egyptian  Amulets 211 

From   Illustrated  Bible  Dictionary.      Courtesy   of  E.   P. 
Dutton  &  Co. 

Fig.  103.  Assyrians  Assaulting  a  City 212 

Fig.  104.  Destruction  of  Lachish 214 

Fig.  105.  Victorious  Soldiers  at  Lachish 217 

Fig.  106.  Homage  to  Sennacherib 219 

Fig.  107.  Esarhaddon,  King  of  Assyria,  681-668  b.c 222 

From  Clay:   Light  on  the  Old  Testament.    Courtesy  of  the 
author  and  The  Sunday  School  Times. 

Fig.  108.    Babylonian  Flood  Tablet 223 

From  Horr:    History  of  the  Chosen  People. 

Fig.  109.    A  Royal  Lion  Hunt 225 

Fig.  110.    Valley  of  Hinnom 228 

Fig.  111.    Old  Codex  at  Shechem 232 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Dwight  L.  Elmendorf. 


xx  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.  112.    A  High  Place 235 

Fig.  113.    Names  of  Pharaoh-Necho  II 238 

From  Bible  Illustrations.  Courtesy  of  Oxford  University 
Press. 

Fig.  114.    Ruins  of  Nineveh 240 

Fig  115.    Plunder  from  a  City 242 

From  Breasted:  Ancient  Times.  Courtesy  of  the  author 
and  Ginn  &  Co. 

Fig.  116.    Procession  of  Prisoners 245 

From  Breasted:  History  of  Egypt.  Courtesy  of  the  au- 
thor. 

Fig.  117.  Jeremiah  at  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem 247 

From  Jewish  Encyclopaedia.  Courtesy  of  Funk  &  Wag- 
nails  Co. 

Fig.  118.    Ruins  of  Elephantine 253 

From  Breasted:  Ancient  Times.  Courtesy  of  the  author 
and  Ginn  &  Co. 

Fig.  119.    Aramaic  Letter  from  Egypt 255 

From  Breasted:  Ancient  Times.  Courtesy  of  the  author 
and  Ginn  &  Co. 

Fig.  120.    Map  of  Babylon 257 

From  Breasted:  Ancient  Times.  Courtesy  of  the  author 
and  Ginn  &  Co. 

Fig.  121.    The  Ishtar  Gate 258 

From  Koldewey:    Excavations  at  Babylon. 

Fig.  122.     Colored  Brick  Lion 260 

From  Koldewey:   Excavations  at  Babylon. 

Fig.  123.    Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon 261 

Courtesy  of  Art  and  Archeology. 

Fig.  124.    Portrait  of  Cyrus 263 

From  Price:  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy 
of  the  author  and  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society. 

Fig.  125.     Dream  Tablet 26S 

Courtesy  of  Art  and  Archxology. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xxi 

PAGE 

Fig.  126.    Persian  Soldiers 269 

From  Breasted:  Ancient  Times.  Courtesy  of  the  author 
and  Ginn  &  Co. 

Fig.  127.    Cylinder  of  Cyrus 271 

From  Clay:  Light  on  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy  of  the 
author  and  The  Sunday  School  Times. 

Fig.  128.     "Shushan  the  Palace" 278 

From  Price:  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy 
of  the  author  and  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society. 

Fig.  129.    The  Jerusalem  of  Nehemiah 281 

Fig.  130.     Cylinder  Seal  of  Darius 283 

From  Clay:  Light  on  the  Old  Testament.  Courtesy  of  the 
author  and  The  Sunday  School  Times. 

Fig.  131.    Assyrian  Dulcimers 287 

From  Illustrated  Bible  Dictionary.  Courtesy  of  E.  P.  Dut- 
ton  &  Co. 

Fig.  132.    Trumpets 289 

From  Illustrated  Bible  Dictionary.  Courtesy  of  E.  P. 
Dutton  &  Co. 

Fig.  133.     Cymbals 291 

From  Illustrated  Bible  Dictionary.  Courtesy  of  E.  P. 
Dutton  &  Co. 

Fig.  134.    Samaritan  Passover 293 

Fig.  135.     "Alexander's  Coffin" 296 

Fig.  136.     Map  of  Alexandria 299 

From  Baedeker's  Egypt. 

Fig.  137.    The  Septuagint 302 

From  Bible  Illustrations.  Courtesy  of  Oxford  University 
Press. 

Fig.  138.    Modern  Antioch 306 

From  Breasted :  Ancient  Times.  Courtesy  of  the  author 
and  Ginn  &  Co. 

Fig.  139.    Coin  of  Antiochus  IV 307 

From  Illustrated  Bible  Dictionary.  Courtesy  of  E.  P.  Dut- 
ton &  Co. 


xxii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGH 

Fig.  140.    Jerash 309 

Fig.  141.    Theatre  at  Amman 31 2 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  142.    Silver  Shekel  of  Simon  Maccabeus 321 

From  Bible  Illustrations.     Courtesy  of  Oxford  University 
Press. 

Fig.  143.    A  Pharisee  at  Prayer 323 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  144.    A  Phylactery 324 

Fig.  145.    Copper  Half-Shekel  of  Simon  Maccabeus 326 

From  Standard  Bible  Dictionary.     Courtesy  of  Funk  & 
Wagnalls  Co. 

Fig.  146.    Rock  of  Cesarea 334 

Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Professor  Lewis  B.  Paton. 

Fig.  147.    Plan  of  C^esarea 336 

From  Standard  Bible  Dictionary.     Courtesy  of  Funk  & 
Wagnalls  Co. 

Fig.  148.    Herod's  Law  Court 337 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  149.    Herod's  Samaria 339 

From  the  Harvard  Theological  Review.     Courtesy  of  Pro- 
fessor D.  G.  Lyon. 

Fig.  150.    Model  of  Herod's  Temple 340 

Fig.  151.    Warning  Stone  from  Herod's  Temple 341 

From  Standard  Bible  Dictionary.     Courtesy  of  Funk  & 
Wagnalls  Co. 

Fig.  152.    Solomon's  Stables 342 

Fig.  153.    Copper  Coin  of  Herod  1 344 

From  Standard  Bible  Dictionary.     Courtesy  of  Funk  & 
Wagnalls  Co. 

Fig.  154.    Jerusalem  from  the  Northeast 346 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  155.    Jerusalem  from  the  Southwest 349 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xxiii 

PAGE 

Fig.  156.    Spoils  from  Jerusalem 351 

From  Bible  Illustrations.     Courtesy  of  Oxford  University 
Press. 

Fig.  157.    Religious  Disputation  Between  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians       359 

From  Jewish  Encyclopaedia.     Courtesy  of  Funk  &  Wag- 
nails  Co. 

Fig.  158.    Jews  Transfixing  Hosts 361 

From  Jewish  Encyclopedia.     Courtesy  of  Funk  &  Wag- 
nails  Co. 

Fig.  159.    Costume  of  German  Jews  of  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury      362 

From  Jewish  Encyclopedia.     Courtesy  of  Funk  &  Wag- 
nails  Co. 

Fig.  160.    Jew  of  Kolomia  in  Austrian  Galicia 363 

From  Jewish  Encyclopedia.     Courtesy  of  Funk  &  Wag- 
nails  Co. 

Fig.  161.    An  Ashkenazim  Jew  of  Tiberias 365 

Photograph  by  the  American  Colony,  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  162.    General  Allenby  Entering  Jerusalem 367 


MAPS 

Plate  I.  Modern   Palestine   with   Ancient  Towns  and  High- 
ways   Frontispiece 

Myp  1.  Hebrew  World:   Geographical  Names. 

Map  2.  Hebrew  Wolrd:   Fertility. 

Map  3.  Hebrew  World:   Semitic  Migrations. 

Map  4.  Sinai  Peninsula:   Wilderness  Waxdekings. 

Map  5.  Contour  Map  of  Palestine. 

Map  6.  Palestine  :   Final  Location  of  the  Tribes. 

Map  7.  Contour  Map  of  Galilee. 


xxiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Map  8.  Battle  of  the  Kishon. 

Map  9.  Palestine:   The  Wars  of  Oppression. 

Map  10.  Palestine:   Saul's  Kingdom. 

Map  11.  The  Battle  of  Mount  Gilboa. 

Map  12.  Palestine:   The  Philistine  Conquest. 

Map  13.  Hebrew  World:  Empires,  Time  of  David,  1000  B.C. 

Map  14.  Early  Jerusalem. 

Map  15.  Palestine:   The  Divided  Kingdom. 

Map  16.  Palestine:   The  Kingdom  of  Omri  and  Ahab. 

Map  17.  Palestine:   The  Syrian  Domination,  810  B.C. 

Map  18.  Hebrew  World:  Assyrian  Advance,  Waves  I  to  III. 

Map  19.  Hebrew  World:  Israel's  Indian  Summer,  745  B.C. 

Map  20.  Hebrew  World  :   Assyrian  Advance,  Waves  IV  to  VI. 

Map  21.  Hebrew  World:    The  Break-Up  of  Assyria,  608-605 
B.C. 

Map  22.  Hebrew  World:  The  Babylonian  Conquest,  586  B.C. 

Map  23.  Hebrew  World:   The  Persian  Empire,  525  B.C. 

Map  24.  Palestine:   The  Time  of  Nehemiah,  445-432  B.C. 

Map  25.  Hebrew  World:   The  Syrian  Conquest,  198  B.C. 

Map  26.  Palestine  :  The  Maccabean  Kingdom,  168-135  B.C. 

Map  27.  Palestine:   The  Kingdom  of  Herod  I,  31-34  B.C. 

Map  28.  Palestine  Under  Hadrian,  135  A.D. 


HISTORY   OF   THE 
HEBREW    COMMONWEALTH 


THE    WORLD   IN   WHICH   THE   HEBREWS   LIVED 

1.  Extent  of  the  Hebrew  World.  The  boundaries  of  that 
part  of  the  earth's  surface  in  which  the  stirring  drama  of 
Hebrew  history  unfolded  were  not  hard  and  fast.  In  the 
early  periods  the  Hebrews  were  almost  entirely  ignorant  of 
lands  beyond  Palestine;  but  as  they  came  in  contact  with 
trading  nations  and  with  great  world-powers  their  horizon 
widened  until  on  the  north  it  touched  the  Caucasus  Moun- 
tains, on  the  east  Ophir  (probably  the  west  coast  of  India), 
on  the  south  Ethiopia  (the  Sudan),  and  on  the  west  Tar- 
shish  (Spain).  While  these  distant  points  were  known  to 
the  Hebrews,  their  history  was  staged  almost  entirely  upon 
a  much  smaller  area.  The  real  Hebrew  world  is  the  space 
between  the  Nile  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west,  the 
mountains  of  Armenia  on  the  north,  the  Tigris  River  and 
the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  east,  and  on  the  south  a  line  stretch- 
ing across  the  desert  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  forks  of 
the  Red  Sea.  [See  Map  No.  1].  This  area  measures  roughly 
548,000  square  miles,  or  about  that  of  California,  Utah, 
Montana,  Oregon,  and  Washington.  Within  this  area  the 
Old  Testament  characters  moved,  and  the  empires  that 
ruled  the  ancient  world  had  their  seats. 

2.  Its  Nature.  Not  all  of  the  Hebrew  world  was  fit  for 
habitation  or  even  for  temporary  settlement.  Across  the 
whole  southern  half  stretched  the  great  Arabian  desert,  an 
arid  sheet  of  rock  with  here  and  there  areas  of  hard-packed 
gravel  or  drifting  sand.  These  desert  patches  could  sup- 
port no  life.  On  their  borders  the  sterile  wastes  gave  place 
to  steppe  lands  that  furnished  food  enough  for  roving  tribes 

1 


2  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

though  not  for  a  settled  people.  If  tribes  wished  a  fixed 
abode  they  had  to  seek  richer  regions  on  the  northwest,  the 
coastal  mountains  and  valleys  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  where 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    1— DESERT    AND    OASIS 

This  is  a  scene  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  Of  what  is  the  desert  in  this  picture 
composed  ?  Why  should  the  mountains  be  so  bare  when  there  are  palms 
in  the  foreground  ?  How  many  people  do  you  estimate  could  live  in  this 
oasis  permanently?  Compare  this  region  with  the  Egyptian  valley  (Fig. 
2)  as  to  fertility,  comfort  in  living,  and  the  probability  that  its  people 
would  develop  arts,  sciences,  and  literature.  Which  region  would  produce 
the  best  warriors?     Why?     The  hardier  stock? 

winds  from  the  sea  deposited  their  moisture,  or  on  the 
northeast,  the  rolling  uplands  of  Mesopotamia  or  the  alluvial 
plains    of    the    Tigris    and    Euphrates    Rivers.     Across    the 


EXTENT  OF  THE  HEBREW  WORLD      3 

barrier  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  west  was  another  fertile  river 
valley — Egypt,  the  gift  of  the  Nile,  earliest  peopled  and 
best  protected.  Thus  the  habitable  Hebrew  world  was  sur- 
prisingly small.  Counting  out  perhaps  a  third  of  the  total 
area  as  worthless  desert  and  more  than  a  half  as  steppe  land, 
there  is  left  barely  100,000  square  miles — the  area  of  Wyo- 
ming— capable  of  sustaining  a  fixed  population  and  produc- 
ing a  surplus  wealth.  In  fact,  reckoning  only  the  rich  allu- 
vial sections,  the  area  is  reduced  to  the  Nile  valley,  which 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Sudan  is  the  size  of  Mary- 
land (12,000  square  miles),  and  the  lower  Tigris-Euphrates 
valley,  the  size  of  New  Hampshire  (9,000).  It  is  easy  to 
see,  therefore,  that  while  in  the  two  early  centres  of  civiliza- 
tion, Egypt  and  Babylonia,  a  livelihood  could  be  gained  on 
fairly  easy  terms,  it  meant  a  struggle  in  Syria  and  northern 
Mesopotamia,  and  in  the  rest  of  the  Hebrew  world  it  was 
a  prize  to  be  fought  for  and  won  by  only  the  hardiest. 

3.  Its  Peoples.  The  various  races  that  have  fought  in 
turn  for  the  possession  of  the  Hebrew  world,  may  be  grouped 
as  Non-Semitic  and  Semitic.  Under  the  former  head  are 
placed  the  flint-men  and  cave-dwellers  in  Palestine,  who  date 
as  early  as  10,000  B.C.,  and  forgotten  tribes  of  low  culture 
in  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia.  Another  race  known  as 
the  Sumerians  developed  a  remarkably  strong  civilization  in 
lower  Babylonia  and  invented  a  written  speech  the  char- 
acters of  which  (cuneiform)  were  used  throughout  the 
Hebrew  world  for  many  centuries.  But  we  know  practically 
nothing  of  their  racial  connections.  The  Hittites,  of  uncer- 
tain ancestry,  pressed  in  from  the  north  and  occupied  for  a 
few  centuries  Armenia  and  northern  Syria.  History  in  all 
these  areas  begins  only  with  the  coming  of  the  Semitic 
conquerors. 

4.  The  Egyptians.  The  most  important  non-Semitic  race 
with  which  the  Hebrews  had  to  do  was  the  Egyptian.  They 
lived  in  the  southwest,  separated  to  a  certain  extent  from 
the  rest  of  the  Hebrew  world.     Here  along  the  fertile  valley 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    2— NILE    VALLEY 

Egypt  to  the  second  cataract  is  a  thousand  miles  long,  but  averages  only  ten 
miles  wide.  What  means  of  communication  have  the  various  parts  of 
the  valley  ?  What  means  for  reaching  the  outside  world  ?  In  the  picture, 
how  many  deserts  do  you  discover?  (Look  beyond  the  river.)  How 
abrupt  is  the  transition  from  the  desert  to  the  sown  ?  On  what  does  the 
fertility  of  such  a  country  depend  ?  What  evidences  do  you  see  of  dense 
population  ?  of  large  public  works  ?  So  situated  and  so  constituted,  would 
this  land  be  likely  to  have  produced  an  early  civilization?  Which  coun- 
try would  tend  to  produce  a  more  progressive  race,  Egypt,  Babylonia, 
or  Assyria?     Why?     (See  Figs.  1,  2,  5,  7,  8.) 


which  was  irrigated  by  waters  brought  by  the  Nile  from  the 
heart  of  Africa,  they  built  up  an  advanced  agricultural  and 
commercial  civilization  as  early  as  3400  before  the  Christian 
era.     By  the  sixteenth  century  they  had  grown  into  a  great 


THE  EGYPTIANS 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    3— STEPPE  LAND 

This  is  fertile  limestone  soil.  Why  is  there  no  more  vegetation  ?  During  what 
time  of  year  is  this  growth  found?  What  do  the  inhabitants  do  the  rest 
of  the  year?  Steppe  land  might  be  called  "step-lively"  land;  can  you 
see  why?  What  is  a  nomad,  and  why  should  nomads  exist?  What  are 
the  advantages  of  nomad  life  as  contrasted  with  fixed  life  ? 


empire  that  included  most  of  the  territory  of  the  modern 
Abyssinia  in  the  south  and  Palestine  and  Syria  in  the  north- 
east. From  this  time  on,  the  Egyptians  remained  in  close 
touch  with  the  other  peoples  of  the  Hebrew  world. 

The  Semites  are  a  vigorous,  enterprising  race  with  the 
physical  and  mental  characteristics  best  seen  to-day  in  the 
Jew.  Their  original  home  may  have  been  the  steppe  lands 
and  oases  of  Arabia,  but  the  proof  is  not  conclusive.  In 
historic  times  the  Semites  have  spread   over   the   area  we 


6  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

are  studying  and  are  called  by  various  names  in  accordance 
with  their  location  and  date. 

5.  The  Arabian  Group.  The  arid  steppes  of  northern  and 
central  Arabia  supported  only  nomadic  tribes  who  were 
compelled  constantly  to  wander  from  one  spring  and  pas- 
tureland  to  another  in  search  of  sustenance  for  their  flocks. 
They  were  never  able  to  develop  an  advanced  civilization 
and  therefore  retained  longest  the  language  and  life  and 
customs  of  the  ancient  Semites.  Their  role  has  been  to 
supply  fresh  tribes  to  make  good  the  losses  caused  by  war 
and  pestilence  in  the  fertile  lands  that  border  their  home. 
They  have  no  history  in  Bible  times,  nor  until  the  days 
of  Mohammed  in  the  seventh  century  of  our  era.  In  fertile 
southern  Arabia,  powerful  kingdoms  developed,  but  they  were 
so  widely  separated  by  parched  deserts  from  the  rest  of  the 
Hebrew  world  that  they  scarcely  touched  it  except  through 
their  products  borne  afar  by  dusty  caravans. 

6.  The  Amorites.  From  the  fifth  to  the  third  millennium 
before  the  Christian  era  the  northern  part  of  the  Hebrew 
world,  including  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia,  wTas  their 
home.  On  the  ancient  monuments  these  Amorites  are  pic- 
tured with  broad  shoulders  and  sturdy  muscles,  long  narrow 
heads  and  low  receding  foreheads,  high  cheek-bones,  aquiline 
noses,  light  complexion,  reddish  hair,  and  long  beards.  The 
centre  of  their  political  organization  appears  to  have  been 
the  middle  Euphrates.  The  ruins  of  their  ancient  cities  ex- 
tend all  along  the  eastern  Mediterranean  and  between  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The  excavations 
have  revealed  a  high  type  of  agricultural  and  commercial  civil- 
ization. Bronze  weapons  and  utensils  abound.  Their  cities 
were  usually  built  on  low  rounded  hills  and  encircled  by  huge 
walls  of  stone  or  sun-dried  bricks.  The  gates  were  flanked 
with  towers.  A  strong  fortress  and  a  temple  marked  the 
centre  of  the  political  and  religious  life  of  the  city,  and  about 
them  and  closely  crowded  together  were  the  little  mud  hovels 
in  which  the  common  people  lived.     Their  type  of  political 


THE   AMORITES  7 

organization  was  thoroughly  autocratic.  The  power  of  each 
tyrant  was  practically  absolute,  and  the  common  people  were 
his  serfs. 

The  term   Canaanite,   so   constantly  used  in   the   Bible, 
means  a   "lowlander."     Canaanites  were   merely   Amorites 


FIG.    4— AMORITES 


Found  on  the  pylon  of  the  mortuary  temple  of  Ramses  II  at  Thebes,  1225  b.c. 
They  represent  Semitic  races  of  various  names  from  whom  the  Hebrews 
took  the  land  of  Palestine  both  east  and  west  of  the  Jordan.  What  grade 
of  intelligence  is  here  indicated? 

who  dwelt  in  the  plains  and  valleys.     One  of  their  numerous 
groups  is  known  as  the  Phoenician. 

7.  The  Babylonians.  At  least  as  early  as  3500  b.c,  and 
probably  much  earlier,  the  Amorite  civilization  began  to 
spread  along  the  lower  Tigris  and  Euphrates  valley  and 
settled  in  the  rich  "sea  lands"  north  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Gradually  the  Semitic  colonists  supplanted  the  Sumerians 
who  had  occupied  this  garden  land  at  a  period  antedating 
human  records  and  took  over  their  culture.  The  Semitic 
conquerors  soon  developed  city  states,  like  Ur,  Nippur, 
Larsa,  and  Erech,  which  were  at  first  mutually  hostile  but 
later  united  under  the  leadership  of  strong  kings.  Out  of 
this  stock  came  Sargon  I  of  Agade  (about  2800  B.C.)  and 
his  son,  Naram  Sin,  who  ruled  from  the  mountains  of  Persia 
on  the  east  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west.  Colonists 
from  Babylonia  moved  northwest  about  2200  B.C.  to  the 
middle  Tigris,  and  were  later  known  as  the  Assyrians. 


8  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

From  the  days  of  Sargon  I  Babylonian  armies  frequently 
conquered  and  a  constant  stream  of  Babylonian  influence 
penetrated  the  lands  lying  along  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 
About  1900  B.C.  the  great  Hammurabi  founded  the  Baby- 


d| 

k 

jfeviti    P  . 

1 

*ML 

1 

1 

Sks 

SjB 

"*  /   i  ■  ^ 

Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    5— BABYLONIA:     EZRA'S    TOMB 

What  sized  river  is  here  suggested?  What  does  the  absence  of  background 
tell  of  the  general  character  of  the  land  ?  What  does  the  nature  of  the  bank 
tell?  What  do  the  palms  tell?  If  a  river  of  this  size  in  such  a  land 
needed  to  be  controlled,  what  arts  and  sciences  would  this  necessity  de- 
velop? In  which  of  the  regions  pictured  in  this  chapter  would  you 
think  civilization  would  soonest  develop?  Why?  What  barriers  or 
obstacles  do  you  discover  that  would  tend  to  isolate  the  inhabitants  from 
the  rest  of  the  world  ?  How  would  isolation  of  a  country  affect  its  devel- 
opment ? 

Ionian  empire,  with  Babylon  as  its  capital.  Henceforth 
commerce  and  trade  ran  uninterruptedly  along  the  ancient 
highways.  The  Babylonian  language  was  finally  estab- 
lished in  Palestine  before  the  fifteenth  century.  Even  when 
this  land  had  been  for  a  century  under  Egyptian  control, 
the  state  papers  that  passed  between  it  and  Egypt  were 
written  in  the  cuneiform  script  of  Babylonia. 


THE  HEBREWS  9 

8.  The  Hebrews.  The  Hebrews  were  among  the  youngest 
of  the  Semitic  peoples,  for  even  their  oldest  traditions  do  not 
go  back  beyond  the  twentieth  century  before  Christ  These 
traditions  and  their  institutions  connect  them  closely  with  the 
nomads  who  wander  over  the  steppes  and  plains  of  northern 


An  Aramean.  A  North  A  Judean  of 

Shishak's  Day. 

Fig.    6 — A    GROUP    OF    SYRIANS    OR    ARAMEANS 

Compare  Fig.  9.  What  similarities  of  feature  do  you  discover  in  these  types? 
Is  there  any  especially  intellectual  countenance?  Are  there  any  evidences 
of  refinement  or  spirituality  ?  Are  any  of  the  men  strong-willed  ?  Are 
any  physical  weaklings  ?  Pick  out  specimens  that  are  fit  to  be  world  con- 
querors. Any  that  would  make  religious  fanatics.  Imagine  these  men 
living  in  America  to-day:  what  kinds  of  citizens  would  they  become,  and 
what  would  be  their  probable  occupations? 


Arabia  and  southern  Mesopotamia.  During  the  so-called 
patriarchal  period  they  tried  to  break  into  the  fertile  cresent 
to  the  north  and  west,  but  everywhere  they  found  it  difficult 
to  gain  a  foothold.  Already  the  world  was  old  and  densely 
populated.  At  first  they  lived  in  the  border-land  between 
Amorite  Palestine  and  western  Arabia.  Famine  in  time 
drove  some  of  them  to  Egypt.  It  was  not  until  about  1150 
B.C.  that  they  began  to  gain  a  permanent  foothold  in  Pales- 
tine. Following  the  Hebrews  out  of  the  ancestral  home,  but 
essentially  the  same  people,  came  the  Arameans.  The  date 
of  their  maximum  strength  is  800  B.C.,  and  their  centre  of 
power  was  Damascus.      (See  Map  No.  2.) 

9.  The  Role  of  the  Coast  Land.     The  land  where  the  He- 
brews finally  crystallized  into  a  nation  is  a  strip  of  mountain 


10 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


and  fertile  valley  that  lies  along  the  eastern  Mediterranean 
coast  and  extends  inland  for  perhaps  a  hundred  miles.  To- 
day it  is  divided  into  two  parts:   (1)  the  northern   half,  ex- 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    7— THE    SYRIAN    VALLEY 

View  northwest  from  Baalbek.  How  high  are  these  Lebanon  mountains? 
You  are  standing  on  a  parallel  range.  Why  would  the  long  valley  between 
probably  be  fertile  ?  What  evidences  can  you  discover  that  it  is  ?  Would 
you  prefer  to  live  here  or  in  Egypt,  Babylonia,  or  Assyria?  Why?  Would 
a  higher  degree  of  civilization  be  possible  here?  Why?  Which  of  the 
four  regions  would  produce  the  hardier  race?  How  do  you  account  for  the 
fact  that  there  are  more  Syrians  in  the  United  States  than  Egyptians  or 
Mesopotamians  ? 


tending  from  Damascus  and  Beirut  to  Alexandretta  and  the 
Euphrates,  and  named  Syria;  (2)  the  southern  half,  reaching 
from  the  same  dividing  line  to  the  desert  and  the  Egyptian 
boundary,  and  called  Palestine  or  the  Holy  Land. 

This  coast  land  has  been  often  likened  to  a  narrow  bridge 


THE   COAST  LAND  11 

connecting  the  civilizations  of  Egypt  and  the  Tigris-Euphra- 
tes valley.  Certainly  its  history  confirms  the  simile,  for 
across  it  have  gone  the  caravans  and  the  armies  of  all  the 
ancient  empires,  treading  the  oldest  highway  known  to 
man.  This  bridge  simile  explains  partly  why  the  coast  land 
never  became  the  seat  of  a  great  empire:  it  was  useful  for 
crossing  but  not  attractive  as  a  home.  Kings  fought  for  it 
because  its  highroad  controlled  traffic  and  led  to  richer 
booty  beyond.  Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  over  it  from  the 
north  swept  the  armies  of  Sargon  and  Hammurabi — though 
they  were  halted  on  the  frontier  of  Egypt — of  Assyria  dur- 
ing its  period  of  greatness,  of  Babylon,  Persia,  Greece,  and 
Rome.  From  the  south,  Egypt,  during  its  days  of  power, 
burst  through  repeatedly — Ahmose,  Thothmes  III,  and  the 
other  eighteenth-dynasty  kings,  Seti  and  Ramses  of  the 
nineteenth,  and  the  occasional  "smoking  firebrands"  of 
the  dying  empire.  In  later  days  the  armies  of  the  caliphs 
surged  back  and  forth  across  it  from  Bagdad  to  Cairo; 
Napoleon  and  Ibrahim  Pasha  trod  the  bridge  in  pursuit  of 
greater  empires;  and  in  the  great  World  War,  Germany  and 
her  Turkish  ally  first  threw  men  across  it  to  pierce  Egypt, 
and  then  Britain  countermarched  from  Egypt  in  order  to  join 
its  other  battalions  coming  up  the  ancient  highroad  of  Meso- 
potamia to  redeem  for  civilization  all  the  ancient  Semitic 
world.  In  the  midst  of  this  ebb  and  flow  of  conquering 
hosts  the  dwellers  of  the  land  could  do  little  else  than  make 
themselves  as  inoffensive  as  possible,  to  pay  tribute  faith- 
fully to  whoever  had  the  power  to  collect,  and  to  keep  alive 
in  their  hearts  the  phantom  hope  of  freedom.  It  is  one  of 
the  outstanding  wonders  of  history  that  a  people  of  a  land 
so  small,  so  divided,  so  poverty-stricken,  so  trampled  upon, 
has  nevertheless  been  able  to  stamp  its  genius  upon  the 
thought  and  life  of  the  whole  world. 

10.  Our  Heritage  from  the  Hebrew  World.  We  owe  to 
this  small  corner  of  the  globe  a  larger  debt  than  perhaps  we 
imagine.     First  of  all  comes  the  Hebrew  religion,  which  has 


12  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

been  one  of  the  greatest  moral  forces  in  history.  By- 
products of  that  religion  are  the  Old  Testament  with  its 
wealth  of  spiritual  teaching  and  inspiration,  and  Christianity 
with  its   New   Testament.     From   the   Arabian   desert  also 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    8— TIGRIS    VALLEY    AT    NINEVEH 

The  hill  in  the  distance  is  the  south  citadel  of  old  Nineveh,  now  called  the  "  Hill 
of  Jonah."  What  kind  of  building  crowns  the  hill?  What  had  the 
prophet  Jonah  to  do  with  this  city?  (Jonah  31-3.)  What  is  the  stream  in 
the  foreground  ?  Discover  evidences  of  farming.  Why  is  the  hill  in  the 
foreground  not  cultivated?  Is  this  region  more  or  less  fertile  than  Egypt, 
Babylonia,  and  Syria? 


came  the  religion  of  Mohammed,  which  dominated  the  civ- 
ilized world  for  a  century  and  still  controls  the  consciences 
of  one-fifth  of  the  human  race.  If  any  land  may  claim  to 
be  the  mother  of  religions  it  is  southwestern  Asia,  the  cradle 
of  Judaism,  Christianity,  and  Mohammedanism. 

We  owe  to  the  early  peoples  of  this  area  the  beginnings 
of  many  of  our  sciences  and  arts.     In  Babylonia,  and  con- 


THE  ANCIENT  HERITAGE  13 

temporaneously  in  Egypt,  arose  the  earliest  cities,  the 
earliest  empires,  with  the  arts  of  war  on  which  empires 
were  founded.  There  irrigation  was  first  developed  and  the 
necessary  implements  of  buckets,  sweeps,  and  wheels  were 
invented.  In  building  we  find  there  the  arts  of  brick- 
making,  arch  construction,   and  decoration  with  sculpture, 


An  Aramean  Envoy  An  Aramean  of 

About  2000  b.c.  Meroni. 

Fig.    9— A    GROUP    OP    ARAMEANS 

Compare  Fig.  6  and  see  questions. 

paint  or  enamel.  Seal  and  gem  cutting  of  the  most  delicate 
kind  was  practised.  Medicine  began  in  Babylon,  or  Egypt, 
or  both,  as  did  astronomy  and  mathematics.  The  Baby- 
lonians predicted  eclipses,  invented  a  calendar  and  passed 
on  to  us  their  system  of  reckoning  time  by  the  year,  month, 
and  week.  We,  as  they,  name  our  days  after  the  gods 
associated  with  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  we  still  use  their 
scheme  of  dividing  the  day  into  two  periods  of  twelve  hours 
each.  From  Phoenicia  came  our  alphabet  and  the  science  of 
deep-sea  navigation,  while  from  Egypt  came  written  speech, 
the  use  of  metals,  and  the  science  of  engineering.  All  these 
facts  indicate  that  the  earliest  civilizations  in  human  history 
arose  here,  and  whatever  of  value  they  evolved  has  been 
passed  on  to  us. 

But  the  chief  claim  of  the  Hebrew  world  to  our  regard 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  ideals  of  democracy  which  to-day 


14  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

are  winning  acceptance  among  all  civilized  races  first  de- 
veloped within  this  area.  Though  the  great  military  despot- 
isms of  Egypt,  Babylonia,  Assyria,  and  Persia  that  flourished 
in  these  lands  have  caused  people  to  think  of  autocracy  and 
the  East  together,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  under  the  iron 
heel  of  these  very  despotisms  there  grew  and  blossomed  a 
tiny  flower,  precious  as  any  poppy  that  now  blows  in  Flan- 
ders fields.  It  is  the  flower  of  human  freedom,  of  the  rights 
of  man,  of  the  possibility  of  self-determination,  of  the  duty 
of  brotherhood.  Certain  ancient  kings  of  Babylon  and 
Egypt  were  the  first  to  express  these  ideals,  but  their  teach- 
ings were  vague  and  fell  upon  poor  soil,  and  so  they  died  and 
left  no  trace  in  human  institutions.  It  was  in  the  soil  of 
the  barren  steppe  lands  that  encircle  Palestine  and  among 
the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  wilderness  that  the  seeds  of  democ- 
racy first  took  root.  Among  the  Aramean  tribes  that  under 
the  leadership  of  Abraham  and  Jacob  found  a  home  in 
southern  Palestine  all  property  was  held  in  common,  each 
man  had  equal  rights  and  responsibilities,  and  the  chieftain 
was  the  servant  of  all.  Whenever  the  independence  of  this 
liberty-loving  group  was  endangered,  each  man  rose  to  put 
down  the  despot.  In  time  their  ideals  regarding  the  funda- 
mental rights  of  man  and  his  duties  to  his  fellows  were  ex- 
pressed in  definite  laws,  and  all  later  democratic  legislation 
is  largely  an  unfolding  of  what  is  there  set  forth  in  principle. 


II 

THE  REDISCOVERY  OF  THE  HEBREW  WORLD 

11.  The  Dust  of  Time.  A  century  ago  the  Bible  was 
practically  our  only  source  of  information  about  the  He- 
brews and  the  Hebrew  world.  The  empires  that  once  flour- 
ished in  the  East  had  fallen  into  decay;  the  ruins  of  their 
civilization  had  been  covered  by  the  sands  of  a  neglected 
land  or  reduced  to  meaningless  heaps  by  rain  and  flood;  and 
the  superstition  of  the  half-civilized  tribes  that  squatted 
among  the  wrecks  of  former  temples  and  palaces  made 
approach  and  study  exceedingly  difficult  for  European 
scholars.  Historians  were  also  hampered  by  the  theory, 
once  held  by  many,  that  it  was  irreverent  to  apply  to  the 
Bible  the  same  literary  and  historical  tests  that  were  used 
with  other  historical  records.  The  result  was  that  knowl- 
edge of  the  backgrounds  of  the  Bible  was  most  meagre: 
Babylonia,  Assyria,  Persia,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor  were 
totally  unknown  except  for  stray  references  in  Greek  and 
Roman  literature;  and  we  were  ignorant  regarding  many 
periods  of  Hebrew  history  where  the  Bible  was  silent,  and 
even  when  it  spoke,  its  testimony  was  not  understood.  To- 
day all  this  has  been  changed. 

12.  The  Rediscovery  of  the  Bible.  During  the  last  two 
generations  the  Bible  has  gained  a  new  interest  and  meaning. 
Scholars  have  been  at  work  reverently  examining  the  ancient 
texts,  and  they  have  learned  to  interpret  the  testimony 
that  each  bears  regarding  its  origin  and  date.  Instead  of 
one  flat  level  of  historic  narrative  they  have  discovered 
various  layers  of  material  coming  from  different  ages  and 
representing   different    grades    of   civilization   and    different 

15 


* 


16  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

*-  types   of    thought.     They    have   recognized 

J^  among   the   oldest  fragments  certain    folk- 

j\  ^  songs  that  perpetuate  ancient  deeds  of  dar- 

r  ing,  like   the   Sword  Song  of  Lamech  (Gen. 

,,  423-24),  or  the  Song  of  the  Well  (Num.  2117"18), 

or  the  conquest  of  early  foes,  like  the  Moab 
Victory  Chant   (Num.*  2127"30),   or  the   Tri- 
or eu or W      umphal  Ode  of  Deborah  (Judg.  5).      They 
have  learned  to  interpret  the  characters  of 
B  the  patriarchs,  partly  as  idealized  portraits 

drawn  by  later  prophets  for  the  purpose  of 
teaching  religion,  and  partly  as  graphic  sum- 
F  maries  of  the  movements  of  tribes  and  na- 

1     m  tions — lenses  through  which  we  can  view  the 

-   r  distant   march   of  peoples.     This   primitive 

way  of  writing  history,  so  that  it  could  be 

}  conveniently  memorized  and  handed  down, 

may  be  seen  in  such  passages  as  Genesis 
<=>1  R  and  j.  10,  which  lists  the  descendants  of  Noah. 
-2»J  The  sons  of  Ham  are  Cush  (Ethiopia)   and 

r0  H  Mizraim  (Egypt)  and  Put  (the  Libyans)  and 

H  Canaan   (Syria  and   Palestine).     "And  Ca- 

KH  naan  begat  Sidon  (the  city   of  the  Phoeni- 

cians),   his    first-born,    and   Heth   (the   Hit- 
S  tites)."     This  list  is  evidently  not  a  family 

tree  but  a  memory-device  to  indicate  racial 
relations. 


V 


n 


K 


A 


K  Fig.     10— THE    HIEROGLYPHIC    ALPHABET 

_  Note  the  separate  characters  to  denote  three  different 

&  "  sounds  of  A.    Our  letter  O  is  usually  expressed  by  the 

-\  chicken  (U  or  W).    The  two  feathers  (I)  stand  for  the 

°>    J        ™  sound  of  tin  machine,  and  therefore  are  the  equivalent 

of  our  E.     Our  sound  of  i  as  in  ice  would  probably  be 

s=>  TH  expressed  by  the  signs  for  A  I,  namely  the  third  and 

T  fourth  in  the  column.    W  is  the  same  as  oo  in  moon. 

C  would  be  expressed  by  S  or  K,  depending  on  its 

Tri-T       t;  r>\        sound.     The  Egyptians,  like  the  Chinese,  could  not 

ll,Hor-W        distinguish  between  L  and  R.     Try  writing  a  letter 

in  the  hieroglyphic  characters. 


REDISCOVERY  OF  THE  BIBLE  17 

New  light  is  also  shed  on  Hebrew  history  by  the  prophets. 
As  long  as  they  were  thought  to  be  lofty  and  inspired  for- 
tune-tellers, speaking  in  riddles  of  great  events  that  would 
come  to  pass  a  century  or  a  millennium  hence,  they  were 
studied  largely  in  the  light  of  future  history,  in  order  that 
each  prophecy  might  be  attached  to  its  definite  fulfilment. 
The  result  was  a  complete  misunderstanding  of  this  portion 
of  the  Bible.  Now  we  see  that  the  prophets  were  not  sooth- 
sayers but  spiritual  geniuses  and  statesmen  who  were  in- 
spired to  interpret  to  the  men  of  their  own  day  God's  nature 
and  demands,  and  that  when  they  predicted,  their  prediction 
was  based  upon  the  great  moral  laws  of  the  universe.  Ac- 
cordingly the  prophetic  books  have  become  for  us  veritable 
mines  of  information.  We  find  revealed  in  them  the  politi- 
cal and  social  conditions  of  the  age  in  which  the  prophet 
lived.  We  are  able  to  observe  the  people's  loyalty  or  dis- 
loyalty to  their  God  and  to  observe  the  foreign  influences  that 
brought  corruption  in  Israel's  religion  and  morals,  and  led 
to  slavery  and  exile.  It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the  gain 
that  has  come  to  our  knowledge  and  insight  with  the  dis- 
covery that  the  Bible  is  a  great  human  document,  throbbing 
with  the  life  and  the  hopes  of  many  generations. 

13.  The  Egyptian  Records.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  Egypt  was  a  sealed  book.  Its  ancient 
language  fell  into  disuse  soon  after  Rome  conquered  it  in 
the  second  century  before  Christ.  The  Arab  conquest  in 
the  seventh  Christian  century  cut  it  off  from  direct  contact 
with  Europe,  and  through  misrule  and  neglect  in  the  suc- 
ceeding centuries  practically  all  memory  of  it  was  lost.  Its 
wonderful  monuments  fell  into  decay  and  were  used  as 
quarries  for  the  building  of  mosques  and  houses.  When 
Napoleon  occupied  Egypt  in  1799  he  took  with  him  a  group 
of  scholars  who  made  a  thorough  survey  of  the  entire  land, 
its  monuments,  its  plant  and  animal  forms.  Their  published 
results  aroused  the  world's  interest  in  that  forgotten  land. 
Napoleon's   engineers,   while   digging   the  foundations   of   a 


IS  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


THE    ROSETTA    STONE 


basalt  tablet  discovered  1779  at  Rosetta.  Upper  register,  hieroglyphic; 
middle  register,  demotic;  lower  register,  Greek.  A  reading-glass  will 
bring  out  the  characters  clearly.  In  the  hieroglyphic  notice  the  ovals 
(cartouches)  that  contain  the  names  of  Ptolemy.  The  first  step  in  the 
translation  of  the  hieroglyphic  was  the  discovery  that  the  king's  name  was 
always  so  enclosed.  The  sounds  of  the  characters  in  "Ptolemy"  could 
then  be  inferred  from  the  Greek. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  RECORDS  19 

fort  near  the  Rosetta  mouth  of  the  Nile,  found  by  chance  a 
stone  bearing  an  inscription  in  three  languages,  the  ancient 
sacred  picture-writing  (hieroglyphic),  the  common  Egyptian 
script,  and  Greek.  Champollion,  a  French  scholar,  began 
to  study  the  Rosetta  stone,  and  in  1822  announced  that  he 
could  read  the  hieroglyphic  language.  He  thus  furnished 
the  world  with  a  key  that  could  unlock  the  vast  treasure- 
house  of  Egyptian  history.  Since  his  day  scholars  have 
laboriously  copied  and  translated  every  inscription  in  Egypt, 
and  through  the  enlightened  interest  of  the  later  rulers  of 
Egypt,  learned  societies  have  been  allowed  to  dig  for  addi- 
tional sources  of  knowledge.  Each  year  adds  to  our  infor- 
mation. 

This  romantic  rediscovery  of  a  forgotten  world  helps  our 
understanding  of  Hebrew  history.  We  have  learned  much 
of  the  fortunes  of  Palestine  previous  to  the  coming  of  the 
Hebrews.  We  know  its  civilization,  its  religion,  its  political 
relations  with  the  great  world-powers,  and  we  can  therefore 
account  for  some  of  the  transformations  seen  in  the  He- 
brews when  they  lived  in  this  remarkable  land.  Many  his- 
toric references  in  the  Old  Testament  have  been  corroborated 
by  the  Egyptian  inscriptions.  Egyptian  customs  have  ex- 
plained certain  Hebrew  customs.  We  understand  now  the 
background  of  such  thrilling  narratives  as  the  Joseph  story. 
We  see  why  Egypt  exercised  such  a  sinister  influence  on  the 
little  kingdom  of  Palestine;  and  latterly,  through  the  un- 
earthing of  precious  manuscripts,  we  have  learned  about 
the  fortunes  of  a  large  section  of  the  Jewish  race  that  took 
refuge  in  Egypt  at  the  time  of  the  exile.  As  yet  we  have 
found  no  records  of  the  Hebrew  bondage  and  exodus — the 
experiences  that  loom  so  large  in  the  Bible;  but  the  sands  of 
Egypt  undoubtedly  hold  many  secrets  that  some  day  will 
be  revealed  and  will  make  clear  to  us  this  and  many  other 
chapters  in  Hebrew  history  that  are  now  obscure. 

14.  The  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Records.  The  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley  suffered  the  same  fate  as  Egypt:   for  cen- 


20  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

turies  it  was  forgotten  and  its  language  lost.  In  1835 
Henry  Rawlinson,  a  young  English  officer  attached  to  the 
Persian  army,  discovered  in  the  Zagros  Mountains  a  lime- 
stone cliff,  called  the  Behistun  rock,  rising  1,700  feet  from 
the  plain,  with  a  great  inscription  in  three  languages  far 
up  on  its  perpendicular  face.  He  set  himself  the  danger- 
ous task  of  copying  the  whole  inscription,  and  then  for 
years  he  and  other  scholars  worked  to  decipher  the  Median 
and  the  cuneiform  on  the  basis  of  the  third  language,  the 
Persian.  Not  until  1857,  after  twenty-two  years  of  work, 
was  the  process  complete.  From  that  day  to  this  transla- 
tion has  gone  on,  excavation  has  furnished  historical  .inscrip- 
tions by  the  yard  and  rod,  and  clay  tablets  by  the  bushel; 
so  that  now  we  have  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  history, 
the  literature,  and  the  religion  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  val- 
ley than  we  have  of  any  other  ancient  civilizations  except 
possibly  those  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

These  achievements  have  had  a  more  direct  bearing  on 
our  knowledge  of  Bible  history  than  have  the  results  of 
Egyptian  exploration,  for  during  most  of  Old  Testament 
times  Egypt  was  in  her  decline,  while  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
were  masters  of  the  world.  Moreover,  Palestine,  being 
Asiatic  rather  than  African,  was  exposed  constantly  to  in- 
fluences from  the  East.  Its  population,  as  we  have  seen, 
was  closely  related  to  that  of  Babylonia,  and  the  intercourse 
of  trade  made  ideas  the  common  property  of  both  lands. 
When  the  literature  of  Babylonia  came  to  light,  therefore, 
the  Old  Testament  acquired  a  new  significance.  We  now 
know  the  sources  from  which  the  Hebrews  derived  their  ideas 
of  the  universe  and  of  ancient  history  (cf.  Figs.  108  and  124), 
their  knowledge  of  the  arts,  and  their  business  and  social  cus- 
toms; and  we  know  the  detailed  history  of  those  great  mon- 
archs  who  ruled  so  much  of  the  world  during  the  Old  Testa- 
ment period,  from  1000  to  300  B.C.,  and  who  dominated  and 
finally  ruined  the  political  life  of  Israel.  So  that,  whereas  the 
Bible  gives  us  the  inner  history  of  the  Hebrews  and  shows 


THE  ASSYRIAN  RECORDS 


Pig.    12 — INSCRIPTION    OF    BEHISTUN 

Behistun  is  on  the  main  caravan  route  from  Bagdad  to  Teheran,  65  miles  west 
of  the  ancient  Persian  capital  Ecbatana.  This  inscription  of  Darius  is 
about  500  feet  from  the  base  of  the  cliff,  just  over  a  large  spring  at  which 
every  caravan  and  army  that  ever  passed  from  Persia  to  Babylonia  has 
drunk.  Darius  knew  how  to  advertise !  The  figures  represent  Darius 
receiving  the  submission  of  certain  rebels,  who  have  ropes  aroimd  their 
necks.  Of  the  nine  panels  of  text,  the  five  to  the  right  are  Old  Persian, 
the  three  to  the  left  are  cuneiform,  of  the  language  of  Susa,  while  the  one 
panel  above  these  is  Babylonian  cuneiform.  The  last  two  are  transla- 
tions of  the  Persian.  Find  Darius,  the  chief  rebel,  and  the  protecting  di- 
vinity, Ahura  Mazda. 


22  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

us  their  struggle  for  a  faith  and  for  national  existence,  the 
mounds  of  Mesopotamia  give  us  the  external  view  and  enable 
us  to  see  Israel  the  prey  to  the  ambitions  of  great  kings,  one 


Fig.    13— MOUND    OF    LACHISH 

II  Kings  14".  It  lies  in  the  foothills  of  Judea  sixteen  miles  east  of  Gaza.  The 
excavators  have  cut  down  a  third  of  the  mound  layer  by  layer,  each  layer 
representing  a  distinct  settlement.  Eight  cities,  one  above  the  other, 
were  thus  laid  bare.  The  lowest  and  oldest  stratum  contained  Amorite 
pottery  and  bronze  utensils,  and  is  dated  1700  b.c.  City  II  is  dated  by 
Egyptian  scarabs  about  1500  b.c.  City  III  is  dated  by  scarabs  and  a 
cuneiform  tablet  about  1400  b.c.  City  IV,  containing  Phoenician  pottery 
and  the  earliest  iron,  dates  1400-1000  b.c.  In  City  V  and  VI,  Jewish  ware 
prevailed.  In  cities  VII  and  VIII  the  red  and  black  figured  Greek  pottery 
was  common,  suggesting  the  dates  550-350  b.c.  Absence  of  coins  and 
other  characteristic  remains  show  that  the  site  was  deserted  after  350  b.c 

Which  of  these  cities  fell  prey  to  Joshua  (Josh.  10lff)?  Which  was  fortified 
by  Rehoboam  (II  Chron.  II9)?  Which  was  taken  by  Sennacherib 
(II  Kings  18  w-m,  Is.  36'-2)  ?  For  pictures  of  this  siege,  see  Figs.  104,  105. 
106.    Why  should  so  much  rubbish  accumulate  on  the  site? 

among  many  petty  states  that  intrigued  and  suffered  in  the 
losing  game  of  world-dominion. 

15.  The  Land  of  Palestine.  Within  the  last  century, 
Palestine  also  has  been  explored  with  a  view  to  finding 
what  contribution  it  can  make  to  our  knowledge  of  Bible 
times.  Unfortunately  the  Turkish  Government  did  not  look 
with  favor  upon  such  exploration,  so  that  while  geographers 
have  mapped  the  surface  with  great  thoroughness  and  have 
identified  many  of  the  places  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  the 


THE  LAND  OF  PALESTINE  23 

ruined  mounds  of  many  ancient  cities  that  dot  its  surface 
have  hardly  been  touched.  Nevertheless,  to  know  the 
topography  of  Palestine  is  a  great  gain,  for  we  can  now  fol- 
low with  considerable  certainty  the  journeys  of  patriarchs 
and  heroes  and  kings,  the  march  of  armies,  the  movements 
of  tribes  and  races,  and  we  can  appreciate  how  the  moun- 
tains and  valleys  of  the  land,  its  geology  and  geography  and 
rainfall,  have  had  a  determining  influence  in  shaping  Hebrew 
history.  Within  the  past  generation  or  two,  several  mounds 
have  been  thoroughly  explored:  old  Lachish  in  southwestern 
Palestine,  where  the  remains  of  eight  cities  of  different 
periods  were  found  on  top  of  one  another;  Gezer,  below 
whose  later  Jewish  and  Amorite  remains  were  found  the 
caves  of  its  prehistoric  flint-men;  Jericho,  whose  walls  and 
citadel  show  the  defensive  engineering  of  thirty  centuries 
ago.  We  are  still  woefully  lacking  in  direct  testimony  about 
the  Old  Testament  period.  The  material  for  large  informa- 
tion undoubtedly  exists,  but  it  is  all  underground.  Now 
that  the  gateways  of  the  Holy  Land  are  open  at  last  and 
men  are  at  liberty  to  turn  once  more  to  things  of  the  spirit, 
we  may  expect  the  most  startling  additions  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  Hebrew  people. 

16.  Other  Sources.  We  are  indebted  to  the  Greek  Herod- 
otus for  a  few  facts  about  the  Hebrews,  and  to  Arrian,  the 
contemporary  chronicler  of  Alexander  the  Great;  to  the 
Jewish  writer  Josephus,  of  the  first  century  a.d.,  for  the 
beliefs  of  his  day  about  his  nation's  history,  and  for  his  de- 
tailed account  of  the  wars  with  Rome;  to  the  Roman  his- 
torians for  many  facts  that  fall  within  the  period  of  Roman 
interest  in  the  East,  the  first  centuries  before  and  after 
Christ;  and  to  the  ruins  of  the  Grreco-Roman  cities,  particu- 
larly east  of  the  Jordan,  for  a  knowledge  of  the  external  fea- 
tures of  their  life.  Then  there  are  the  scattered  inscrip- 
tions, chiefly  in  Greek  and  Latin,  which  have  come  to  light 
from  time  to  time;  and  coins  by  which  we  fill  in  the  lists  of 
kings  or  rulers.     Other  Hebrew  writings  besides  those  in- 


24  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

eluded  in  our  Bible  also  contain  historical  data — the  books 
of  the  Maccabees,  Esdras,  and  Tobit;  while  from  Ecclesi- 
asticus,  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  the  Psalms  of  Solomon, 
the  Ascension  of  Isaiah,  and  the  like,  we  glean  many  a 
hint  as  to  the  moral  and  religious  ideals  of  the  Jews  in  the 
centuries  immediately  preceding  the  Christian  era.  These 
varied  records,  and  especially  the  Bible  and  the  cuneiform 
literature  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  furnish  the  data  from 
which  we  may  gain  a  clear  and  vivid  idea  of  the  life  of  the 
Hebrews  during  the  twelve  centuries  that  lie  between  their 
first  entrance  into  Palestine  and  the  final  destruction  of 
Jerusalem. 


Ill 

THE  CRADLE  OF  DEMOCRACY 

17.  The  Biblical  Account  of  the  Egyptian  Sojourn.  The 
history  of  the  Hebrew  nation  begins  with  the  bondage  in 
Egypt,  for  the  earlier  stories  in  Genesis  simply  record  the 
experiences  of  individuals  and  tribes.  In  the  book  of  Exo- 
dus we  find  the  Hebrews,  some  hundreds  or  perhaps  thou- 
sands in  number,  occupying  the  land  of  Goshen  in  the  east- 
ern Delta  and  under  the  lash  of  the  taskmaster  building 
store  cities  for  the  reigning  Pharaoh.  They  are  multiplying 
rapidly.  Pharaoh  fears  that  unless  something  is  done  to 
check  their  growth  they  will  some  day  get  out  of  hand.  He 
therefore  orders  that  the  taskmasters  make  their  labor  ex- 
ceedingly hard  and  painful,  and  when  this  proves  ineffective, 
that  all  male  children  be  drowned  at  birth.  One  mother 
manages  to  conceal  her  child  for  a  while,  then  places  him  in 
an  ark  of  bulrushes  among  the  river  reeds.  By  chance 
Pharaoh's  daughter  comes  there  to  bathe,  discovers  the 
baby,  takes  pity  on  him  and  has  him  brought  up  in  the 
palace  as  her  own  son.  In  memory  of  his  finding  she  calls 
him  Moses.  The  Hebrew  story-tellers,  through  similarity  of 
sound,  derive  the  name  from  the  verb  "to  draw  out,"  but 
Moses  is  probably  the  Hebrew  form  of  the  Egyptian  word  for 
child  (mos). 

When  Moses  was  grown,  he  one  day  saw  an  Egyptian 
beating  a  Hebrew.  Impelled  by  hot  indignation,  he  killed 
the  Egyptian.  When  the  deed  became  known  Moses  escaped 
arrest  by  fleeing  to  the  land  of  Midian  on  the  east  or  north  of 
the  Red  Sea.  Here  he  married  the  daughter  of  the  priest 
Jethro  and  for  twenty  years  served  his  father-in-law  as  a 

25 


2G 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


herdsman.  But  the  memory  of  his  people's  wrongs  burned 
in  his  soul,  until  one  day  his  duty  flamed  up  before  him  as  a 
compelling  vision  of  Jehovah  in  a  burning  bush,  and  he 
heard  a  clear  call  to  the  seemingly  impossible  task  of  rousing 


an 
Is 

o     ° 
pert-f, 
his  grain, 
(or  progeny) 


I 
I-sr-aa-l 

Israel 

I 

Khar 

Syria 


J 


ben 


feket 
laid  waste,    not  [exists] 

I 

i 


em 
hath  become    as 


khart 
a  widow. 


Fig.    14— EARLIEST    MENTION    OF    ISRAEL 

The  Egyptian  text  of  two  lines  of  Merneptah's  stela  (Fig.  21),  a  transliteration 
and  a  translation.  After  the  word  Israel,  note  the  figures  of  a  man,  a 
woman,  and  three  straight  lines  (a  plural  sign).  These  constitute  a  "de- 
terminative," and  indicate  the  nature  of  the  word  just  used:  i.  e.,  the  word 
"Israel"  denotes  a  man  and  a  woman  many  times  repeated !  Notice  the 
play  on  words  in  the  characters  for  Syria  and  widow. 


the  spirit  of  revolt  and  leading  the  horde  of  Hebrew  slaves 
out  of  their  cruel  bondage. 

Moses  was  not  disobedient  to  the  heavenly  vision,  but 
returned  to  his  kindred  and  called  them  in  the  name  of  the 
God  of  their  fathers  to  follow  him  into  the  desert.  He 
repeatedly  interviewed  Pharaoh  in  person,  and  to  the  accom- 
paniment of  signs  and  wonders  demanded  the  release  of  his 
people  that  they  might  sacrifice  to  their  God  in  the  wilder- 
ness. The  only  result  was  an  increase  of  burdens:  the  task- 
masters made  the  Hebrews  gather  the  necessary  straw  in 
addition  to  making  the  bricks.  But  Moses  encouraged  the 
people  with  Jehovah's  promises,  confounded  Pharaoh's 
magicians  who  tried  to  duplicate  his  supernatural  signs,  and 
by  bringing  upon  the  land  a  series  of  ten  fearful  plagues, 


BIBLICAL  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  EXODUS         27 

the  last  of  which  was  the  death  of  every  first-born  of  the 
Egyptians,  finally  frightened  Pharaoh  into  releasing  the 
Hebrews. 

Hastily  the  clans  were  summoned,  a  sacrificial  meal  called 


Find  two  men  getting  water  in  jars  from  a  pool  (see  the  lilies) ;  two  men  mixing 
the  mud;  a  carrier;  a  man  making  bricks  in  a  mould;  a  man  laying  the 
bricks  in  rows;    a  man  mending  his  hoe. 


Fig.    15— BRICK-MAKING 

Painted  on  a  tomb  at  Thebes,  Egypt. 
Find  two  task-masters  with  sticks  (Ex.  I11;  514) :  men  carrying  and  depositing 
mud;  two  men  carrying  dried  bricks  with  a  yoke;  one  returning  with 
empty  yoke. 


the  Passover  was  eaten,  and  the  flight  began.  Men,  women, 
children,  and  many  cattle  poured  eastward  along  the  cara- 
van road  to  the  wilderness.  Then  avoiding  the  military 
wall  and  the  fortresses  that  guarded  the  narrow  frontier  of 
the  isthmus,  they  turned  southward  and  halted  for  the 
night  on  the  shore  of  the  Bitter  Lakes.     Pharaoh  in  the 


28 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


V**/' 


Fig.  16— BRICK  OF  RAMSES  II 
Made  of  unbaked  Nile  mud  and  chopped 
straw,  stamped  with  the  prenomen  of 
Ramses  II,  Hz.:  User-maat-Ra-setep- 
en-Ra  ("Strong  is  the  Truth  of  Ra. 
the  chosen  one  of  Ra").  The  size  of 
the  brick  is  15  x  7%  x  4J<  inches.  For 
straw  in  bricks,  see  Ex.  5'.  For  the 
process  of  brick-making,  see  Fig.  15. 


meantime  had  repented 
of  his  fears  and  sent  after 
the  fugitives  an  army  of 
chariots  and  horsemen. 
But  Jehovah  sent  a 
strong  east  wind  all  that 
night,  which  blew  the 
shallow  waters  aside  and 
uncovered  enough  flats 
to  allow  the  Hebrews  to 
escape.  The  Egyptians 
attempted  in  the  morn- 
ing to  pursue,  but  the 
returning  waters  en- 
gulfed their  army,  while 
the  Hebrews  advanced 
safely  to  the  open  wil- 
derness. This  great  de- 
liverance is  the  first  and 
most  significant  incident 
in  their  history. 

18.  Confirmations  of 
the  Biblical  Account.  In 
spite  of  the  prominence 
of  the  supernatural  in 
the  later  versions  of  the 
story  and  the  complete 
silence  of  the  Egyptian 
records,  there  is  no  rea- 
son to  doubt  the  essen- 
tial truth  of  the  events 
recorded.  In  the  first 
place,  the  Hebrews  them- 
selves never  doubted  it. 
The  providential  phe- 
nomena  of   the   plagues 


CONFIRMATIONS  OF  THE   BIBLICAL  ACCOUNT    29 


and  the  retiring  sea 
made  a  tremendous  im- 
pression upon  their 
memories  and  forever 
linked  their  escape 
with  the  thought  of  the 
power  of  Jehovah,  their 
new-found  God.  All 
through  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, in  story  and 
psalm  and  prophecy, 
the  exodus  constantly 
recurs  as  the  outstand- 
ing fact  at  the  begin- 
ning of  their  national 
life  and  the  solid  argu- 
ment why  they  should 
remain  faithful  to  Je- 
hovah their  deliverer. 
In  the  second  place 
the  story  itself,  wrhile 
not  minutely  specific, 
shows  with  reasonable 
clearness  a  back- 
ground of  historic  fact 
that  is  corroborated  by 
the  Egyptian  records. 
19.  The  Pharaoh  of 
the  Oppression.  Schol- 
ars have  long  felt  that 
the  Pharaoh  of  the  op- 
pression was  Ramses  II 
(1292-1225  b.c).  This 
store  cities  the  Hebrews 
This  hint  is  confirmed 
1883  excavated  these  tw 


Fig.    17— HEAD    OF    RAMSES    II 

The  mummy  was  found  by  Arab  grave-dig- 
gers at  Thebes  in  1875  but  not  revealed 
to  the  authorities  until  1SS1.  It  was  un- 
wrapped in  1886  in  the  presence  of  Khe- 
dive Tewfik,  and  its  identity  established 
by  indorsements  made  on  the  inner 
bandages  by  the  high  priests  who  had 
inspected  and  repaired  it.  Ramses  II 
reigned  sixty-seven  years,  1292-1225 
b.c,  was  the  father  of  a  hundred  and 
eleven  sons  and  sixty-seven  daughters, 
and  died  at  the  ago  of  ninety-seven. 
Judging  by  his  present  appearance, 
what  were  some  of  his  qualities  ? 


is  hinted  at  in  Exodus  l11,  where  the 

built  are  named  Raamses  and  Pithom. 

by  the  findings  of  Naville,  who  in 

o  sites  and  discovered  bricks  stamped 


30  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

with  the  name  of  Ramses  II.  In  Pithom  also  were  found  a 
great  tablet  of  red  granite,  two  sphinxes  of  black  granite 
:ind  other  memorials  of  Ramses.  Moreover,  the  entire  nar- 
rative of  the  bondage  is  in  keeping  with  all  that  we  know 
about  this  great  autocrat.  Ramses  was  a  mighty  builder, 
and  his  long  reign  of  sixty-seven  years  allowed  him  full 
scope  for  his  ambitions.  He  inherited  from  his  father  a 
large  empire,  which  he  had  military  genius  enough  to  pre- 
serve intact.  His  revenues  poured  in  on  all  sides  from 
Syria  on  the  north  to  Khartoum  on  the  south,  and  his  cam- 
paigns kept  him  supplied  with  slaves  from  every  vassal 
nation. 

It  is  interesting  to  see  his  own  confession  that  slavery 
was  the  foundation  of  his  greatness.  At  the  rock-temple  of 
Abu  Simbel  there  are  four  giant  statues  of  Ramses  seated  on 
thrones  before  the  facade;  the  base  of  every  throne  is  sculp- 
tured with  captives,  and  the  ropes  around  the  necks  of  all 
are  gathered  into  Pharaoh's  mighty  fist.  Superstitious  to 
a  degree,  he  endeavored  to  keep  on  the  good  side  of  all  the 
gods  by  prolific  bribes  in  the  shape  of  endowments  of  land 
and  slaves,  and  of  wonderful  temples  which  in  size  at  least 
outstripped  the  work  of  his  predecessors  and  which,  as  the 
inscriptions  show,  were  intended  to  glorify  him  cpjite  as 
much  as  the  gods.  Everywhere  there  were  giant  statues  of 
himself;  everywhere  great  palaces  arose,  and  especially  in 
the  Delta  frontier  cities  and  fortresses.  Half  the  monu- 
ments in  Egypt  bear  his  name  either  as  constructor  or 
restorer.  This  constant  building  called  for  slaves  by  the 
tens  of  thousands;  for  while  the  problems  of  engineering 
involved  would  demand  skilled  Egyptian  workmen  in  large 
numbers,  the  mere  labor  of  pulling  stones  and  constructing 
enormous  inclines  of  earth  for  their  emplacement  could  best 
be  done  by  foreign  human  beasts  of  burden.  The  Hebrews, 
ignorant  of  all  arts,  may  well  have  made  the  Pharaoh's 
bricks.  They  were  not  the  only  nations  so  employed,  for 
the  monuments  show  us  people  who  are  not  Hebrews  doing 
precisely  this  work.      (See  Fig.  15.) 


THE  PHARAOH  OF  THE  OPPRESSION  31 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    18— ABU    SIMBEL 

One  of  the  most  impressive  temples  in  Egypt,  hewn  out  of  the  living  mountain  by  Ramses  II  and  completed 
before  1359  B.C.  The  entrance  is  on  this  side  of  the  nearer  statue.  At  sunrise  the  sun  shines  through 
the  great  portal  and  lights  up  not  only  the  chambers  but  the  faces  of  the  gods  enthroned  in  the  inmost 
shrine.  The  thrones  of  the  four  giant  statues  are  sculptured  with  rows  of  captive  negroes  and  Asiatics, 
each  figure  with  a  rope  round  its  neck  that  leads  up  to  the  Pharaoh's  hand.  What  does  this  signify  I 
If  the  near  Phaiaoh  should  stand  up,  how  many  feet  tall  would  he  be  ?  What  idea  is  meant  to  be  con- 
veyed by  the  size  of  this  work  ?  Judging  hy  his  face,  what  opinion  has  Ramses  of  himself  ?  Comment 
on  the  artistic  and  engineering  skill  of  the  Egyptians.     Find  Rain»es'  name. 


32  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

20.  The  Land  of  Goshen.  We  have  been  able  to  locate 
accurately  the  home  of  the  Hebrews.  It  is  a  long  funnel- 
shaped  section  of  the  eastern  Delta,  its  apex  formed  by  the 
Wadi  Tumilat  that  reaches  eastward  to  the  present  Suez 
Canal,  and  its  base  running  north  and  south  from  the  mod- 
ern Zagazig  to  Belbeis.  The  fresh-water  canal  that  to-day 
supplies  Ismailia  and  Port  Said  runs  along  its  northern  bor- 
der, as  does  the  present  railway,  and  the  old  caravan  road 
to  Syria  crosses  the  western  end.  Both  of  the  store  cities, 
Raamses  and  Pithom,  lay  within  this  territory;  indeed  we 
have  the  testimony  of  an  Egyptian  papyrus  that  Ramses  II 
founded  here  "the  home  of  Ramses"  with  a  royal  residence 
and  temples;  and  a  later  poet  speaks  of  this  city  as  being 
situated  between  Egypt  and  Syria.  It  was  Ramses  II  who 
first  irrigated,  developed,  and  colonized  Goshen,  which  at 
the  time  of  the  coming  of  the  Hebrews  was  only  grazing- 
land.  This  section  of  Egypt  is  the  only  one  that  satisfies 
the  conditions  of  the  biblical  story. 

21.  The  Disastrous  End  of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty.  The 
departure  of  the  Hebrews  must  have  occurred  within  a  gen- 
eration of  the  death  of  Ramses  II,  or  not  far  from  1200  B.C. 
Which  of  the  four  kings  who  ruled  in  this  generation  should 
be  regarded  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus  is  an  unimportant 
question,  though  scholars  were  once  inclined  to  name  Mer- 
neptah,  the  fourteenth  of  the  one  hundred  and  eleven  sons 
of  Ramses  II.  It  was  a  period  of  storm  and  stress.  Ram- 
ses had  exhausted  his  empire  by  his  extravagances,  and 
after  him,  as  after  Louis  XIV  of  France,  came  the  deluge. 
Out  of  Libya  on  the  west  came  hordes  of  invaders,  and  from 
the  islands  of  the  sea,  Crete,  Cyprus,  and  Asia  Minor,  came 
bands  of  pirates,  all  of  whom  ravaged  the  Delta.  They 
were  finally  stopped  at  Heliopolis,  but  Egypt  never  recov- 
ered from  the  shock.  Merneptah's  boastful  stela  in  the 
Cairo  museum  can  be  discounted  in  view  of  subsequent 
events:  the  empire  of  Ramses  was  lost  and  the  nineteenth 
dynasty  came  to  an  inglorious  end.     These  and  still  other 


END  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  DYNASTY 


33 


§^\     MEDITERRANEAN 


"  Caravan  road  to  Syria 

.....  Route  of  the  Exodus 

Fig.    19— MAP    OF    GOSHEN 

Observe  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  land  of  Goshen,  the  long  handle  having  been 
made  possible  by  the  waters  of  a  canal  dug  in  ancient  times  from  the  Nile 
to  the  Red  sea.  Queen  Hatasu's  expedition  to  Punt  sailed  from  Thebes  by 
way  of  this  canal.  Note  also  that  the  Bitter  Lakes  were  formerly  an  exten- 
sion of  the  Red  Sea.     The  Hebrews  crossed  one  of  the  connecting  shallows. 


34 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


calamities  that  followed  the  death  of  Merneptah  are  prob- 
ably the  basis  of  the  Hebrew  plague  stories.  Although  dif- 
fering in  details,  the  oldest  biblical  narratives  and  the  con- 
temporary records  are  in  fundamental  agreement. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    20— STORE    CHAMBERS    AT    PITHOM 

Part  of  a  city  affirmed  by  the  Hebrew  tradition  to  have  been  built  by   them. 
See  Fig.  16  for  a  brick  found  here. 


The  best  knowledge  we  can  command  at  the  present  day, 
therefore,  indicates  that  a  section  at  least  of  the  Hebrew 
tribes  suffered  a  period  of  forced  labor  in  Egypt  under 
Ramses  II  and  his  successors,  and  that  in  the  disorganized 
period  that  marked  the  downfall  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty 
they  escaped  to  the  eastern  desert  to  begin  an  independent 
nomadic  life. 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  BONDAGE  AND  EXODUS     35 


22.  The  True  Significance  of 
the  Bondage  and  Exodus.  It  is 
startling  to  realize  that  political 
and  industrial  slavery  was  the 
cradle  of  the  first  real  democracy 
and  of  the  first  religion  that  taught 
loyalty  to  one  God  and  justice 
and  consideration  for  all  men. 
The  Hebrew  nation  began  in  a 
revolt  against  inhuman  treat- 
ment and  that  revolt  took  the 
form  of  a  general  strike.  The 
organizer  and  leader  of  that 
ancient  walk-out  was  one  of  the 
slaves  who  by  a  fortunate  cir- 
cumstance had  been  able  to  climb 
out  of  slavery  and  get  an  educa- 
tion and  a  world  view  of  things. 
The  people  whom  he  led  was 
from  the  start  democratic.  It 
had  no  internal  system  of  class 
government,  except  that  it  had 
inherited  from  a  distant  nomadic 
past  the  custom  of  each  fami- 
ly's acting  through  its  oldest 
member.  These  elders  all  wil- 
lingly co-operated  with  Moses  in 
his  plan  of  revolt. 

The  bondage  in  Egypt  accom- 
plished this  for  the  Hebrews:  it 
taught  them  to  hate  political 
and  industrial  tyranny  of  every 
kind.  The  memory  of  their  own  experience  enlisted  their 
sympathies  ever  afterward  in  behalf  of  all  victims  of 
oppression.  No  other  ancient  people  showed  such  tender 
consideration  for  the  slave,  the  resident  alien,  the  widow, 


Copyright  by 

Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    21— VICTORIOUS 
HYMN      OF     MERNEPTAH 

Containing  the  earliest-known 
reference  to  Israel.  Cf.  Fig. 
14.  This  stone  was  originally 
used  by  Amenhotep  III  in  his 
mortuary  temple  at  Thebes. 
His  inscription  is  still  on  the 
other  side.  Why  should  Mer- 
neptah  have  used  a  second- 
hand stone?  The  figures  at 
the  top  represent  the  god 
Amon  presenting  a  curved 
sword  to  the  king  (repeated 
bisymnietrically) . 


36 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


the  orphan,  and  the  hired  laborer.  Many  of  Israel's  noblest 
philanthropic  laws  are  reinforced  by  the  comment,  "  Re- 
member that  you  were  a  slave  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  and 
that  Jehovah  your  God  brought  you  out  from  there  by  a 
mighty  hand  and  an  outstretched  arm."  Above  all,  this 
experience  led  the  Hebrews  to  think  of  their  deity  as  a  god 
full  of  sympathy  for  the  afflicted  and  dependent,  and  ever 
eager  to  champion  their  cause  against  cruel  oppressors.  It 
is  this  strong  social  element  in  Israel's  early  religion  that 
distinguishes  it  from  all  other  early  faiths,  and  that  led 
the  Hebrew  prophets  of  a  later  age  to  reject  sacrifices  and 
ceremonies  as  a  means  of  pleasing  God  and  to  proclaim  jus- 
tice and  mercv  and  love  as  the  sole  basis  of  his  favor. 


Fig    22— NAMES  OF  RAMSES  II 

Left  cartouche,  the  coronation  title,  assumed  when  he  ascended  the  throne: 
"User-Maat-Ra-Setep-en-Ra,"  translated,  "Strong  is  the  truth  of  Ra,  the 
Chosen  One  of  Ra. "  Right  cartouche,  the  personal  name:  "  Ramses-meri- 
Amon,"  translated,  "  Ramses  beloved  of  Amon  "  (the  state-god  of  The- 
bes). In  addition,  Ramses  had  a  "soul  name,"  called  also  a  hawk  name 
because  it  was  preceded  by  a  hawk,  the  symbol  of  Horus.  It  was  always 
enclosed  in  a  rectangle,  and  reads:  "  Hor-ka-nakhton-meri-Maat "  — 
"Horus,  the  mighty  bull  who  loves  the  truth."  Notice  that  most  Old 
Testament  names  also  have  a  meaning. 


IV 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  THE  WILDERNESS 

23.  The  Route  to  Mount  Sinai.  Moses  evidently  had  no 
definite  plans  for  his  horde  of  runaways  beyond  getting 
them  safely  out  of  Egypt.  He  might  have  taken  them  in 
one  of  three  ways:  (1)  The  caravan  road  to  Syria,  which 
would  have  led  them  among  the  newly  arrived  pirates,  the 
Philistines;  (2)  the  road  southward  along  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  Red  Sea,  which  would  have  led  them  into  the  Egyp- 
tian garrisons  stationed  to  guard  the  copper  and  turquoise 
mines  at  Dophkah;  and  (3)  the  road  he  had  travelled  twice 
before  to  the  land  of  Midian,  a  route  used  to-day  by  the 
pilgrims  from  Cairo  to  Mecca.  The  last  road  would  bring 
them  most  speedily  beyond  Egyptian  authority.  There  is 
positively  no  evidence  to  decide  which  of  the  two  latter 
routes  he  took.  Our  only  authority  for  placing  Mount 
Sinai  where  it  is  generally  found  on  the  maps  is  an  ignorant 
monk  of  the  fourth  century  a.d.  In  fact,  if  the  data  given 
in  the  Bible  are  carefully  wreighed,  they  point  to  the  location 
of  Sinai-Horeb  somewhere  in  the  land  of  Midian  east  of  the 
Gulf  of  Akabah,  or  in  the  Mount  Seir  group  north  of  that 
point.  On  the  whole,  it  seems  probable  that  the  Israelites 
went  straight  to  Elim  (Elath)  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah;  they  sought  the  mountain  of  Jehovah  to  the  north- 
east in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Seir,  made  their  attempt  to 
enter  Palestine  by  way  of  Kadesh  Barnea  and  the  South 
Country;  lost  their  grip  upon  what  little  purpose  they  had 
and  became  nomads  with  Kadesh  as  their  centre;  and  last 
of  all,  struck  for  the  richer  grazing-lands  that  overlooked 

37 


38 


THE   HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    23— MOUNT    SINAI 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  mountains  in  the  world.  Its  granite  and  porphyry 
mass  reared  itself  from  the  primeval  ocean  and  has  come  down  unchanged 
through  all  the  geologic  epochs;  though  round  its  base  the  Red  Sea  once 
threw  a  girdle  of  coral,  and  to  the  north  lie  vast  sheets  of  limestone  laid 
down  in  the  chalk  age.  The  Arabs  call  it  Jebel  Musa,  or  mountain  of 
Moses.  It  rises  7,915  feet  above  the  sea.  It  has  been  regarded  as  the 
Sinai  of  scripture  only  since  the  sixth  century.  In  the  plain  where  the 
sheep  are  the  Hebrews  are  said  to  have  waited  for  the  giving  of  the  Law 
(Ex.  192).     Note  the  character  of  the  vegetation. 

Within  the  circuit  of  the  mountain  tradition  has  located  the  Well  of  Moses 
(Ex.  215*17),  the  revelation  of  Jehovah  to  Moses  and  the  seventy  elders  of 
Israel  (Ex.  249),  the  cleft  where  Moses  saw  the  glory  of  Jehovah  (Ex.  33**), 
and  the  cavern  where  Elijah  concealed  himself  (I  Kings  199ff  ). 


the  Jordan  from  the  east.      (See  Map  No.  4.)      This  itiner- 
ary occupied  "forty  years,"  that  is,  about  two  generations. 
24.  The  Covenant  at  Mount  Sinai.     The  most  important 
incident  in  this  period  took  place  around  Sinai-Horeb.     It 


THE   COVENANT  AT   MOUNT  SINAI  39 

is  probable  that  in  the  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  of 
their  bondage  knowledge  of  their  primitive  god  had 
almost  disappeared;  and  now  the  slaves  found  themselves 
beyond  the  protection  of  the  Egyptian  deities,  without  a 
definite  faith  in  a  god  of  their  own.  Moses,  with  clear  in- 
sight into  the  needs  of  his  people,  made  haste  to  lead  them 
to  the  spot  where  Jehovah  had  showed  himself  to  him,  and 
there  by  means  of  a  solemn  blood  rite  caused  the  Hebrews 
to  adopt  Jehovah  as  their  sole  tribal  god.  A  covenant  was 
entered  into  by  both  parties,  by  which  the  tribe  agreed  to 
be  faithful  to  Jehovah  and  his  commands,  and  Jehovah 
agreed  to  be  the  special  protector  of  the  infant  nation. 

The  people's  duties  in  this  contract  were  expressed  in  the 
form  of  ten  words  or  short  statements  (the  Decalogue) — 
doubtless  so  numbered  in  order  to  be  easily  remembered  by 
the  ten  fingers.  The  oldest  form  of  this  law  is  probably 
found  in  Exodus  34,  but  the  more  familiar  and  infinitely 
greater  Decalogue  is  that  found  in  Exodus  201"17,  which  de- 
fines man's  duties  to  God,  to  his  parents,  and  to  his  fellow 
men. 

In  order  to  assure  the  tribes  by  a  definite  symbol  that 
their  God  was  ever  with  them,  Moses  built  a  wooden  shrine 
called  the  ark,  and  had  it  carried  on  poles  by  the  priests,  as 
were  the  shrines  in  the  Egyptian  temples.  He  also  made 
for  it  a  tent  surrounded  by  a  forbidden 'area,  again  after  the 
Egyptian  style.  This  primitive  sanctuary  was  regarded  as 
the  special  home  of  Jehovah,  to  which  Moses  went  to  learn 
the  divine  will  and  before  which  Jehovah's  oracles  were  in- 
terpreted to  the  people.  When  orders  came  for  the  tribes 
to  march,  the  ark  of  Jehovah  was  carried  before  them. 
Jehovah  was  compelled  to  be  a  wandering  deity  because  his 
people  were  nomads.  Not  till  the  Hebrews  ceased  to  live 
in  tents,  in  Solomon's  time,  did  Jehovah  have  a  fixed  abode 
at  Jerusalem.  To  us  the  symbol  seems  childish,  but  to  the 
Hebrew  the  reminder  that  God  was  ever  with  them  was  an 
inspiration  and  a  safeguard. 


40 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


The  events  about  Sinai  had  such  vast  significance  for  the 
future  of  Israel  that  the  later  biblical  writers  have  sur- 
rounded them  with  the  symbols  of  mystery  and  majesty: 


Fig.    24— MONASTERY    OF    SAINT    CATHARINE 

It  lies  5,014  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the  spot  where  the  emperor  Justinian  built 
a  fort  in  530  a.d.  to  protect  the  hermits  and  pilgrims  who  came  hither. 
Formerly  the  monastery  is  said  to  have  contained  as  many  as  4,000  in- 
mates, but  there  are  now  not  more  than  30,  mostly  natives  of  Crete  and 
Cyprus  and  professing  the  orthodox  Greek  faith.  Find  the  entrance,  the 
garden,  the  church  tower.  Moses'  well  is  behind  the  church,  and  waters 
the  garden.  The  Chapel  of  the  Burning  Bush,  in  the  apse,  marks  the 
spot  where  Jehovah  appeared  to  Moses  (Ex.  31-*).  The  monastery  con- 
tains a  famous  library,  in  which  in  1844  Tischendorff  discovered  the  famous 
Codex  Sinaiticus.  A  flight  of  3,000  steps  cut  in  the  granite  ascends  from 
the  monastery  to  the  top  of  the  mountain,  through  the  dark  cleft  above 
to  the  right. 


clouds  and  darkness,  thunders,  lightnings  and  earthquakes. 
The  narratives  that  gather  about  Sinai  prove  that  the 
Hebrews,  in  common  with  all  primitive  peoples,   held  the 


THE   COVENANT  AT  MOUNT  SINAI  41 

conviction  that  law  is  something  greater  than  the  individual 
and  more  sacred  than  the  nation.  Thus  these  ancient 
teachers  dramatically  and  effectively  taught  that  law  and 
conscience  are  both  divinely  inspired. 

25.  Canaan  and  the  Wishful  Eye.  Rumors  of  rich  land 
to  the  north  induced  the  tribes  to  transfer  their  base  from 
the  holy  mountain  to  the  oasis  of  Kadesh  Barnea,  which  lies 
fifty  miles  south  of  Beersheba  and  seventy-five  southwest  of 
Hebron.  Twelve  spies  were  sent  to  see  how  desirable  the 
country  was.  They  reported  a  land  "  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey,"  and  they  brought  back  huge  clusters  of  grapes. 
There  was  a  division  of  opinion  regarding  the  wisdom  of 
forcing  an  entrance.  Caleb  and  Joshua,  an  enthusiastic 
minority,  said,  "Go  up  and  take  possession  of  the  land!" 
but  the  majority  wrung  their  hands  as  they  recalled  fenced 
cities  and  giant  inhabitants  in  whose  sight  the  Hebrews 
were  as  grasshoppers.  This  exhibition  of  cowardice  was 
infectious.  All  the  people  turned  back  from  the  bold  enter- 
prise, and  Moses  was  disgusted.  Yet  this  result  might  have 
been  predicted.  What  could  a  rabble  of  runaway  slaves, 
without  organization,  equipment,  or  experience  in  war,  have 
accomplished  against  a  civilization  that  was  centuries  old 
and  firmly  intrenched  !  A  new  body  and  a  new  spirit  must 
first  be  created. 

26.  The  Gifts  of  the  Wilderness.  It  is  easy  to  follow 
the  hardening  processes  that  made  this  rabble  fit  to  survive 
and  to  conquer  their  more  powerful  foes,  for  the  books  of 
Exodus  and  Numbers  are  filled  with  evidence.  First  there 
were  hostile  tribes,  like  the  Amalekites  and  the  men  of 
Arad,  who  took  toll  of  them.  Scant  rations  followed  by  an 
oversupply  of  quails  carried  off  more.  There  must  have 
been  many  pestilences,  induced  by  starvation  and  the  hard- 
ships of  desert  marching,  for  Jehovah  is  said  to  have  pun- 
ished them  repeatedly  for  their  murmurings  by  slaying 
thousands  of  them.  There  were  rebellions  against  the  lead- 
ership of  Moses,  each  of  which  was  put  down  with  blood- 


42 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    25— SCENE    OF    THE    FIGHT    WITH    AM  ALE  K 

Find  the  oasis  for  the  possession  of  which  the  fight  occurred.  The  hill  on  which 
we  stand  may  well  have  been  the  one  where  Hur  and  Aaron  stayed  up  the 
hands  of  Moses  (Ex.  171112).  Picture  to  yourself  the  difficulties  a  host 
of  runaway  slaves  would  have  to  sustain  itself  and  fight  off  enemies  in  a 
country  like  this  I 

shed,  and  one  encounter  with  poisonous  snakes  that  took 
off  many  people.  This  was  indeed  a  struggle  for  existence, 
in  which  the  weaker  tribesmen  went  down  and  a  new  genera- 
tion arose  that  was  hungry  enough  to  attack  any  man,  and 


THE  GIFTS  OF  THE   WILDERNESS 


43 


-.71* 


T&k 


v     .** 


Copyrignl  oy  Unuerwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    26— BEDOUIN    TENTS    NEAR    MOUNT    SINAI 

These  dwellings  differ  in  no  essentials  from  those  used  by  the  Hebrews.  What 
animal  yields  hair  of  this  hue  ?  Of  what  would  the  ropes  be  made  ?  What 
would  be  the  shape  of  the  tent-cloth  if  laid  flat  on  the  ground  ?  How  is  it 
held  up?  Imagine  the  fate  of  books,  pictures,  bric-a-brac,  pianos,  and 
parlor  furniture  if  housed  thus !  What  is  the  relation  of  civilization  to 
fixed  abodes  and  the  possession  of  property  ?  What  determines  whether 
a  nation  is  civilized  ? 


44  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

hardy  enough  to  beat  him.  This  new  people  was  the  prod- 
uct of  the  desert.  The  Hebrews  were  now  brothers  in  spirit 
and  body  to  all  those  Bedouin  freebooters  who  down  to  our 
own  day  have  terrorized  the  borders  of  Palestine.  With 
such  an  instrument  Moses  and  Joshua  could  at  last  strike 
successfully. 

27.  The  First  Foothold  in  Palestine.  Moving  northward 
on  the  east  side  of  the  great  depression  of  the  Arabah,  the 
tribes  skirted  less  fertile  Edom  and  Moab  till  they  passed 
the  head  valleys  of  the  Arnon.  They  were  now  3,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  on  the  borders  of  the  Araorite  country, 
which  is  well  watered  during  the  winter  and  spring,  and  in 
every  way  was  suited  to  their  needs.  There  was  pasture  for 
large  droves  of  cattle,  and  opportunity  for  some  agriculture. 
Sihon  ruled  the  southern  portion,  from  the  Arnon  to  the 
Jabbok,  with  his  capital  at  Heshbon.  Og  ruled  the  northern 
part,  from  the  brook  Jabbok  well  up  toward  Damascus,  with 
his  stronghold  at  the  marvellous  underground  city  of  Edrei. 
Both  these  kings  were  conquered  and  slain  by  the  Hebrew 
tribesmen,  and  the  huge  iron  bedstead  of  Og  was  preserved 
for  generations  as  a  trophy.  The  story  of  Balaam  which  is 
introduced  at  this  period  suggests  the  natural  terror  with 
which  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  regarded  this  invasion  of 
nomads,  and  the  ineffective  magic  with  which  the  king  of 
Moab  tried  to  stop  them. 

We  must  not  imagine  that  the  conquest  was  completed 
in  one  campaign.  The  ancient  narratives  in  the  book  of 
Judges  plainly  indicate  that  there  was  a  long  period  of  fight- 
ing and  squatting  and  shifting,  and  some  permanent  set- 
tling and  intermarrying.  It  may  have  taken  fifty  years  for 
the  actual  control  of  this  east-Jordan  land  to  pass  from  the 
Amorites  to  the  Hebrews. 

28.  Moses  the  First  Great  Hebrew.  The  more  we  study 
the  personality  of  Moses  the  greater  he  seems.  Only  a  man 
of  heroic  mould  and  dauntless  faith  would  have  dared  to  defy 
the  tyrant  who  ruled   the  world-empire  of  Egypt  and   to 


THE  GREATNESS  OF  MOSES 


45 


lead  a  rabble  of  undisciplined 
slaves  out  into  a  trackless  wil- 
derness. Only  a  man  of  master- 
ful powers  of  control  could  have 
maintained  himself  for  two  gen- 
erations the  acknowledged  leader 
of  these  rebellious  tribes.  Only 
a  man  possessed  of  an  iron  will 
and  a  physical  frame  of  steel 
could  have  stood  the  strain  of 
wilderness  life  and  in  addition 
have  carried  the  mental  burden 
of  his  people's  physical  and  spiri- 
tual needs.  Yet  these  are  the 
less  surprising  accomplishments 
of  this  wonderful  man.  The 
proof  of  his  colossal  genius  lies 
rather  in  these  things — that  he 
was  able  so  to  organize  the  He- 
brews that  his  authority  after 
his  death  increased  rather  than 
diminished,  and  served  to  keep 
the  state  essentially  democratic; 
that  he  attached  the  people  to 
Jehovah  by  ceremonies  so  free 
from  the  debasing  forms  which 
surrounding  nations  used  that 
they  have  survived  to  the  pres- 
ent day;  and  that  he  established 
civil  laws  so  wise  that  all  future 
generations  of  Hebrews  sought 
authority  for  their  legislation  by 
ascribing  it  to  him. 

But  the  ultimate  greatness  of 
Moses  rests  not  so  much  in  what 
he  accomplished   as  in  what  he 


Fig.    27— MOSES 
By  Michelangelo. 

Designed  for  the  decoration  of 
the  tomb  of  Pope  Julius  II 
and  finished  in  1545.  It  is 
now  in  the  church  of  Saint 
Peter  in  Chains,  Rome. 
It  is  one  of  the  grandest 
figures  ever  carved.  How 
has  the  sculptor  indicated 
that  Moses  is  the  law- 
giver? How  has  he  indi- 
cated his  great  age?  his 
undimmed  vigor?  (C/.  Deut. 
347. )  The  horns  were  given 
to  Moses  on  the  basis  of  a 
passage  in  Exodus  that  was 
mistranslated  in  the  Latin 
Vulgate. 

Moses  has  just  discovered  that 
the  Hebrews  are  worship- 
ping the  golden  calf.  How 
is  this  shown  ? 


16  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

wiis.  It  is  his  spiritual  quality,  rare  in  any  day  but  unac- 
countable in  that  primitive  epoch,  that  made  him  one  of  the 
lew  commanding 'figures  of  all  time;  it  is  his  courage,  his 
devotion,  his  wisdom,  his  unwavering  trust  in  Jehovah. 
He  was  the  first  great  prophet  not  only  in  Hebrew  history 
but  in  world  history,  speaking  out  of  personal  knowledge 
of  God  his  convictions  about  the  divine  will  for  man. 
Through  this  work  as  spokesman  of  Jehovah,  as  prophet  of 
the  unseen,  he  confirmed — one  might  almost  say  created 
— in  the  Hebrew  race  their  marked  capacity  for  religion. 
His  absolute  faith  in  the  ability  of  Jehovah  to  lead  his  peo- 
ple into  a  "large  place"  inspired  others  wdth  that  faith. 
And  the  prophets  of  a  later  age,  in  picturing  the  glories  of 
their  Messianic  deliverer,  could  think  of  no  higher  praise  for 
him  than  to  cause  Moses  to  say  in  prophecy:  "Jehovah 
your  God  shall  raise  up  for  you  a  prophet  like  me."  He 
was  indeed  like  a  lofty  mountain  peak,  to  which  men  toil- 
ing in  the  valleys  afar  off  lift  their  eyes  to  find  inspiration 
and  blessing  in  its  loftiness  and  purity  and  majesty. 


THE  HOME  OF  THE  HEBREWS 

29.  The  Eastern  Shelf.  When  Moses  surveyed  the  land- 
scape from  the  top  of  Pisgah,  he  saw  a  land  of  exceeding 
beauty  and  diversity.  His  point  of  vantage  was  a  rounded 
bastion  of  the  lofty  Moabite  plateau,  sculptured  out  by  the 
winter  streams  that  fell  on  both  sides  of  it  to  the  Jordan 
plain.  Its  summit  was  2,643  feet  above  the  sea,  and  it  was 
one  of  a  score  of  similar  projections  that  guard  the  long  edge 
of  the  east-Jordan  battlements.  Eastward  behind  this  fore- 
most line  other  summits  rise  somewhat  higher,  and  between 
all  the  tops  lie  shallow  valleys  that  roll  away  to  a  well-nigh 
limitless  horizon.  Near  at  hand,  by  the  western  edge,  the 
swelling  hills  and  vales  are  green  with  crops,  but  as  the  eye 
runs  eastward  toward  Arabia  it  detects  a  rustier  hue;  until 
after  twenty  miles  or  so,  when  the  winds  from  the  sea  have 
dropped  all  their  moisture,  the  green  of  vegetation  gives 
place  entirely  to  the  brown  of  the  desert. 

It  is  the  lure  of  the  green  that  has  tempted  the  desert 
dwellers  from  long  ago;  and  there  is  no  natural  barrier  to 
check  their  advance.  All  the  east-Jordan  land  is  like  a 
narrow  beach  on  which  the  desert  tribes  have  rolled  and 
broken  since  history  began.  Its  little  strip  of  pasture  is  a 
veritable  paradise  in  the  eyes  of  men  accustomed  to  roam 
long  and  far  for  a  bare  sustenance,  and  therefore  it  has 
always  been  debatable  ground,  first  to  be  attacked  and  first 
surrendered.  Only  once  in  its  long  history  has  any  civilized 
power  been  able  to  build  and  hold  a  bulwark  against  this 
human  drift,  and  that  was  in  the  first  and  second  centuries 
A.D.,  when  Rome  established  the  powerful  cities  of  the  De- 

47 


48  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

capolis  to  protect  the  lines  of  her  great  roads.  To-day  we 
wonder  at  the  ruins  of  Jerash  (Fig.  140)  and  Amman  (Fig. 
141)  and  Gadara  and  Arbila  with  their  beautiful  columns 
and  forums  and  enormous  theatres,  mute  testimony  to  the 


Fig.    28— MOUNT    NEBO 

You  are  looking  south.  Find  the  location  of  Mount  Xebo  on  the  map  and  then 
tell  what  lies  off  the  picture  to  the  right,  and  to  the  left.  Xebo,  or  Pisgah, 
is  merely  the  westernmost  projection  of  the  east- Jordan  table-land,  a  sort 
of  pulpit  or  observation  platform.  Who  made  the  many  paths  that  cross 
the  picture? 


power  of  that  civilization  that  once  undertook  to  civilize  and 
rule  the  world.  All  that  Rome  stood  for  has  vanished  un- 
der the  vandal  hand  of  the  Turk.  Her  roads  have  been 
quarried  to  furnish  mill-stones,  and  in  their  stead  one  sees 
now  only  lone  mile-stones  and  the  countless  trails  made  by 
unshod  feet,  the  feet  of  men  and  sheep  and  goats  and 
camels. 

As  this  table-land  runs  northward  it  is  cut  into  four  sec- 


THE  EASTERN  SHELF 


49 


tions  by  rivers  that  have  worn  deep  canyons  into  the  lime- 
stone. From  south  to  north  the  rivers  are  as  follows:  (1) 
the  Arnon,  falling  into  the  Dead  Sea  midway  its  length;  (2) 
the  Jabbok,  flowing  into  the  Jordan  midway  its  course;  (3) 
the  Yarmuk,  emptying  into 
the  Jordan  just  below  the 
Sea  of  Galilee.  The  four 
sections  of  the  plateau 
have  borne  various  names. 
The  southmost  was  for- 
merly called,  after  the  tribe 
that  lived  there,  Moab. 
Now  it  is  named  after  its 
chief  town,  Kerak.  Be- 
tween the  Arnon  and  the 
Jabbok  the  land  is  some- 
times called  Moab,  for  the 
Moabites  once  owned  most 
of  it,  and  sometimes  Am- 
nion, after  the  old  tribe  of 
that  name.  The  name 
Gilead  is  now  usually  ap- 
plied to  it  and  to  the  sec- 
tion next  on  the  north. 
The  third  section  has  al- 
ways borne  the  geographical  name  Gilead,  though  in  Christ's 
day  it  went  by  its  political  name  of  Decapolis,  because 
of  the  ten  cities  of  the  Greeks  that  lay  mostly  within  its 
borders.  The  northmost  section  is  Bashan,  though  the 
large  hollow  around  the  sources  of  the  Yarmuk  is  called 
specifically  the  Hauran.  In  Moses'  day  the  whole  plateau 
north  of  the  Arnon  was  called  the  land  of  the  Amorites,  or 
the  kingdoms  of  Sihon  and  Og. 

30.  The  Great  Trench.  At  Moses'  feet,  sheer  down  from 
Pisgah's  watch-tower,  the  rugged  wall  of  Moab  dropped  to 
the  Jordan  valley  and  the  Dead  Sea.     Some  ten  miles  away, 


Fig.    29 — IN   THE   DEAD   SEA 

Showing  the  great  buoyancy  of  the  water. 
Shortly  after  this  picture  was  taken 
a  wind  capsized  the  man  with  the 
umbrella  and  the  sail  got  wet.  On 
drying  the  umbrella  was  so  incrusted 
with  salt  that  it  could  not  be  shut 
and  had  to  be  thrown  away. 


50 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


yet  seemingly  not  more  than  two,  rose  the  valley's  western 
wall,  the  adamantine  cliffs  that  bear  on  their  top  the  twisted 
wilderness  of  Judea.  Between  that  western  wall  and  the 
eastern  one  on  which  he  stood,   lay  the  most  astonishing 

valley  in  the  world — a  vast 
ditch,  a  chasm,  which  ex- 
tended far  out  of  sight  to 
the  north,  where  snowy 
Mount  Hermon  sends  its 
roots  down  into  the  plain, 
and  the  southern  end  of 
which  Moses  and  his  horde 
had  but  recently  crossed  at 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah.  It  is  what  the 
geologists  call  a  "fault." 
Long  ago  when  things 
were  in  the  making,  the 
earth  cracked  here.  A 
huge  slice  fell  downward, 
as  the  eastern  plateau  was 
thrust  up,  and  along  the 
crack  oozed  out  streams 
of  lava  from  below.  One 
may  to-day  see  their  black 
dikes  cropping  out  here 
and  there,  or  ride  over 
miles  of  stones  that  once 
showered  out  of  old  craters 
when  Jehovah  "rained  fire  and  brimstone  upon  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,"  or  bathe  at  many  places  in  sulphur  springs 
still  hot  with  internal  fires.  But  the  astonishing  feature  of 
this  great  trench  is  its  depth.  It  sinks  to  the  sea-level  far  to 
the  north  by  the  Waters  of  Merom.  At  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
it  has  fallen  to  682  feet  below  the  sea;  on  the  Dead  Sea  shore 
below  Nebo  it  has  reached  the  depth  of  1,292  feet,  while  the 


Fig.    30— BAD    LANDS    OF    THE 
JORDAN    VALLEY 

This  is  the  old  lake  bed,  now  exposed  by 
the  shrinking  of  the  waters.  A  little 
rain  transforms  the  dusty  ground 
into  ooze  the  consistency  of  soft  soap. 
Woe  to  the  carriage  that  attempts 
a  passage  under  such  conditions. 
Harder  strata  form  caps  over  this 
silt  at  places,  and  so  protect  it  from 
being  washed  down.  The  result  is  a 
series  of  terraces  all  along  the  lower 
valley,  taking  the  shape  of  mesas,  as 
shown  in  the  picture. 


THE   GREAT  TRENCH  51 

bottom  is  1,308  feet  lower  still.  From  the  top  of  Nebo  to 
the  lowest  point  of  the  rift,  therefore,  the  distance  is  a  per- 
pendicular mile.  If  the  ocean  could  be  sluiced  in  here,  the 
Dead  Sea  would  expand  to  a  length  of  140  miles,  and  still 
be  only  a  few  rods  wider  than  it  is  at  present. 

Indeed,  long  ago  the  lake  did  reach  these  dimensions. 
The  rains  of  the  glacial  age  once  filled  the  valley  to  beyond 
the  level  of  the  sea,  to  old  lines  of  beaches  still  visible  on 
the  hillsides.  But  as  the  rainfall  slackened,  rapid  evap- 
oration, due  to  the  nearness  of.  the  desert,  caused  the 
lake  to  shrink.  When  human  history  began,  the  shrinking 
had  nearly  stopped;  and  now,  with  minor  fluctuations,  the 
lake  hangs  stationary  just  at  the  balancing  point  between 
the  intake  from  the  Jordan  River  and  the  outgo  from  evap- 
oration— for  there  is  no  outlet  for  the  great  sink-hole  except 
upward.  Thus  it  comes  about  that  six  and  a  half  million 
tons  of  water  every  day  go  up  to  heaven  from  the  surface 
of  this  sea  !  What  is  left  is  so  charged  with  the  salts  and 
minerals  that  have  been  washed  in  by  the  Jordan  that  four 
buckets  of  water  when  evaporated  produce  one  bucket  of 
solid  matter.     One  cannot  sink  in  the  Dead  Sea.     (Fig.  29.) 

Though  from  the  heights  of  Nebo  the  Jordan  valley  is 
fair  to  look  upon,  it  is  a  most  uncomfortable  stopping-place. 
The  air  is  heavy.  The  winds  sweep  high  above  it  from  the 
western  hills  to  the  eastern,  and  the  sun  bakes  down  in  the 
hollow  until  the  air  quivers  as  in  a  furnace.  It  is  never  cold 
there,  and  in  the  summer  the  temperature  mounts  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  degrees  and  higher.  The  ground, 
too,  has  a  sickly  and  ulcerous  appearance  in  the  region 
around  Jericho,  so  filled  with  chemicals  is  it,  though  farther 
north  it  becomes  more  normal.  If  the  old  aqueducts  of 
Roman  times  could  be  again  used,  or  if  the  Jordan  itself 
could  be  canalled  off  for  irrigation,  the  wretched  soil  might 
be  washed  and  redeemed  and  the  whole  plain  blossom  as  the 
garden  of  the  Lord.  Some  day  this  will  be  done.  In  the 
meantime,  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the  salt  mountain  be- 


52 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


low  the  Dead  Sea,  the  large  part  of  this  valley  is  only  an  un- 
healthy jungle  in  which  the  Arabs  spread  their  black 
tents  when  driven  thither  by  the  parching  of  the  plateaus 
above. 

Historically  this  great  rift  was  the  most  important  factor 
of  Israel's  environment.     It  has  been  a  divider.     Were  it 


Fig.    31— THE    WATERSHED    OF    JUDEA 

Near  Beeroth,  on  the  main  road  northward,  thirteen  miles  from  Jerusalem, 
where  the  valleys  of  Ajalon  and  Michmash  almost  meet.  What  is  this 
land  good  for?  Why  should  there  be  no  trees?  Why  are  there  stone 
walls? 


not  for  this  steep  descent  and  ascent,  for  this  salt  sea,  for 
the  debilitating  climate  of  this  old  lake  bottom,  or,  to  put 
it  conversely,  if  the  plateau  of  the  east  had  rolled  unbroken 
to  the  summit  of  the  western  ridge,  the  Arabs  would  have 
turned  all  Palestine  into  debatable  ground;  the  Hebrew 
democracy  could  never  have  arisen  and  flourished,  civiliza- 
tion would  not  have  gained  a  foothold,  and  the  religion  of 
Israel  that  needed  for  its  development  a  certain  isolation 
would  never  have  blossomed  in  the  prophets  or  fruited  in 


THE  GREAT  TRENCH 


53 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    32— MIZPAH 

A  typical  Judean  hill  surmounted  by  a  village.  See  how  the  level  strata  of 
limestone  form  giant  steps  to  the  very  summit  (2,953  feet).  Look  up  the 
connection  of  King  Asa  with  this  hill  (I  Kings  1522),  Gedaliah  (II  Kings 
2523'  25),  and  Judas  Maccabseus  (sec.  212).  The  crusaders  thought  that 
this  was  Shiloh  and  built  a  church  here  in  1157,  which  now  does  duty  as  a 
mosque  over  the  tomb  of  Samuel.  Was  Samuel  buried  here  (I  Sam.  251)  ? 
The  view  from  Mizpah  extends  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  mountains 
of  Moab  and  from  Hebron  to  Mount  Gerizim. 


Jesus.     So  a  mere  shudder  of  the  old  earth  long  ago  changed 
the  history  and  the  destiny  of  the  human  race ! 

31.  The    Central   Roof.     When   Moses   looked   westward 
across  the  chasm  of  the  Jordan  he  saw  a  sky-line  that  was 


54  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

nearly  level,  and  higher  than  Nebo.  Above  the  precipitous 
Judean  cliffs  the  chalky  hilltops  climb  slowly  away  until  at 
an  air-line  distance  of  thirty  miles  they  reach  a  long  crest. 
North  and  south  the  ridge  runs,  its  highest  point  opposite 
the  centre  of  the  Dead  Sea,  3,737  feet;  thence  by  Hebron 
3,370,  Bethlehem  2,690,  Mizpah  2,835,  Bethel  2,890.  As 
the  roof  extends  northward,  the  valleys  that  divide  the  hill- 
tops become  broader,  though  the  mountains  themselves 
remain  nearly  as  high — Sinjil,  near  Shiloh,  2,600,  Gerizim 
2900,  Ebal  3,000.  But  just  beyond  Ebal  the  long  ridge 
lowers  its  crest;  it  breaks  into  rounded  hills.  Then  one 
spur,  veering  to  the  northeast,  runs  out  to  a  point  at  Mount 
Gilboa,  1,600  feet  high,  and  abruptly  stops,  while  another 
and  longer  spur  runs  northwest  in  a  chain  of  dimpling  hills 
until  it  culminates  in  Mount  Carmel,  1,800  feet  high,  thrust- 
ing itself  boldly  into  the  Mediterranean.  The  central  range 
of  Palestine  has  thus  broken  down  completely. 

The  broad  plain  of  Esdraelon  now  interposes,  a  wonderful 
triangle  of  verdure  fifteen  miles  on  a  side.  Beyond  this 
again  rise  the  splendid  hills  of  Galilee,  separated  from  each 
other  by  long  finger-like  valleys  running  up  from  the  east 
and  the  west  and  almost  touching  each  other.  North  of 
this  diversified  country  the  great  central  ridge  rises  again 
almost  abruptly,  with  many  cusps  2,000  feet  high.  Finally 
the  magnificent  range  of  the  Lebanon  Mountains  dominates 
the  sky-line  on  the  north  and  passes  beyond  the  limits  of 
Palestine.  Its  first  peak  is  8,000  feet  high,  and  its  highest 
three  above  Beirut  are  over  10,000.  Thus  the  whole  of  cen- 
tral Palestine  is  a  mountain  range,  parallel  with  the  Jordan 
valley  and  the  seacoast,  breaking  down,  however,  into 
broad  plains  and  valleys  in  Lower  Galilee. 

This  central  section,  too,  has  strongly  influenced  Israel's 
history.  The  plains  of  Galilee  and  the  valleys  of  Samaria, 
because  they  were  crossed  by  the  roads  from  everywhere, 
were  the  earliest  to  fall  to  the  invader;  and  the  people,  ex- 
posed to  every  heathen  religion  that  travelled  these  same 


THE  CENTRAL  ROOF 


55 


roads,  lost  earliest  their  desert  faith  in  Jehovah  and  their 
desert  purity  of  life.  The  Hebrews  who  once  lived  here 
have  almost  vanished  without  leaving  any  appreciable  im- 
press upon  the  life  of  mankind.     But  Judah,  high  on  her 


Fig.    33— THE    WILDERNESS    OF   JUDEA 

On  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho,  looking  southwest.  Contrast  these 
smooth  hills  with  the  rocky  terraces  on  the  west  side  of  the  watershed  (cf. 
Fig.  32).  The  difference  lies  in  the  relative  hardness  of  the  rocks:  on  the 
west,  limestone  strata;  on  the  east,  chalk.  The  soil  here  is  white.  In  the 
winter  there  is  a  scant  vegetation  on  which  countless  flocks  graze.  In  the 
summer  the  hills  are  parched  brown. 

central  ridge,  lying  on  the  road  to  nowhere  and  isolated  by 
her  bulwark  of  mountains  round  about,  kept  the  invaders 
at  bay  a  century  and  a  half  after  her  sister  kingdom  had 
fallen,  and  developed  her  ideas  of  religion  until  they  became 
narrow  enough  and  intense  enough  and  vital  enough  to 
survive  even  the  destruction  of  the  state.  The  mountains 
round  about  Jerusalem  proved  to  be  the  everlasting  arms 
beneath  her  faith. 

32.  The  Westward  Meadows.     Moses  could  not  see  be- 
yond the  central  range,  and  he  was  probably  ignorant  of 


56 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


the  fertile  fields  that  stretched  westward  some  sixteen  miles 
to  the  sea.  His  people  were  destined  not  to  possess  this 
garden-ground  for  many  generations;  for  the  Philistines, 
newly  settled  on  the  western  shore,  were  exterminating  the 


Fig.    34— THE    GARDENS    OF    JAFFA 

Looking  southwest.  To  the  right  of  the  city  is  the  sea.  The  trees  are  date- 
palms,  oranges,  figs,  and  pomegranates.  Their  culture  is  made  profitable 
by  irrigation,  the  water  being  raised  from  wells  by  immense  wheels  with 
buckets  on  them.  Modern  Jewish  colonists  use  the  gasolene  engine. 
Oranges  are  exported  from  Jaffa  to  the  value  of  $1,250,000  a  year — the 
most  luscious  oranges  in  the  world,  juicy,  seedless,  and  measuring  up  to 
sixteen  inches  in  circumference. 


Canaanite  lowlanders  at  precisely  the  time  when  the  He- 
brews were  crossing  the  great  rift  from  the  east  to  conquer 
the  Amorite  highlanders.  These  two  newcomers  fought 
each  other  for  generations  to  determine  who  should  control 
the  plain.     In  the  end  the  Philistines  won. 

The  plain  is   the   most  fertile  part  of  Palestine.     From 
Gaza  on  the  south,  where  the  desert  ceases,  the  rolling  fields 


THE   WESTERN   MEADOWS 


57 


are  golden  with  grain.  Olives  and  palms  flourish,  and  in 
these  days,  by  the  aid  of  wells  and  irrigation,  thousands  of 
boxes  of  the  most  luscious  and  the  largest  oranges  of  the 
world  are  raised  here.     As  the  plain  stretches  northward  it 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    35— SUMMIT    OF    MOUNT    HERMON 

The  most  conspicuous  and  the  most  beautiful  mountain  in  Palestine,  9,166  feet 
high.  It  is  covered  with  snow  most  of  the  year.  The  Bible  gives  evidence 
of  the  impress  it  made  on  the  Hebrew  imagination.  Look  up  Ps.  8912; 
1333;   Song  of  Sol.  4s.     This  is  perhaps  the  "high  mountain"  of  Matt.  171. 


gradually  narrows  and  ends  in  a  long  point  where  Mount 
Carmel  crowds  it  into  the  Mediterranean.  North  of  Car- 
mel  the  coastal  plain  begins  again  with  a  wide  sweep  inland, 
but  soon  narrows  above  Acre  to  the  merest  strip,  which 
widens  a  little  opposite  Tyre  and  Sidon.  This  northern 
coast  plain  was  never  held  by  the  Hebrews,  but  was  the 
home  of  the  Phoenician  branch  of  the  Canaanite  family. 
Thus  the  Phoenicians  above  and  the  Philistines  below  were  re- 
sponsible, in  part  at  least,  for  the  Hebrew  aversion  to  the  sea. 


58  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

One  other  reason  must  be  given  why  the  Hebrews  failed 
to  take  to  the  sea:  the  absence  of  harbors.  Note  on  the 
map  the  long,  unbroken  curve  of  coast-line  from  Gaza  to 
Mount  Carmel.  There  is  not  a  suggestion  of  an  anchorage 
where  a  vessel  could  lie  safe  from  the  pounding  of  the  winter 
gales.  If  shepherds  and  vine-dressers  are  to  become  sailors, 
the  sea  must  come  invitingly  to  the  hills,  as  it  did  in  Greece; 
or  the  mountains  must  crowd  down  to  the  shore  and  force 
an  expanding  people  to  take  to  ships — as  they  did  in  Phoeni- 
cia. So  while  Phoenician  sails  dotted  every  sea  and  Phoeni- 
cian merchants  squeezed  profit  out  of  the  wares  of  all  the 
world,  the  Hebrew  stayed  by  his  sheepfolds  listening  to  the 
pipings  for  the  flocks  and  hugging  his  religion  to  his  breast, 
until  war  and  persecution  in  the  latter  days  scattered  his 
children  to  the  four  corners  of  the  earth. 

To  sum  up:  Palestine  presented  to  the  Hebrews  four  par- 
allel zones  running  north  and  south:  (1)  The  eastern  table- 
land, (2)  the  Jordan  valley,  (3)  the  central  highland,  (4) 
the  maritime  plain.  While  all  of  these  zones  were  possessed 
by  the  Hebrews,  in  part  at  least  and  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter 
time,  the  central  highland  became  their  real  home. 


VI 
THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  A  HOME 

33.  Canaanite  Palestine.  The  Hebrews  may  well  have 
paused  to  reckon  the  cost  before  throwing  themselves  into 
the  land  of  Canaan.  To  conquer  an  intrenched  civilization 
is  no  holiday  pastime,  especially  when  the  invaders  have 
not  much  more  than  their  own  courage  to  rely  upon.  In 
the  present  case  the  Hebrews  had  no  special  skill  in  war, 
and  while  the  accounts  speak  of  destroying  with  the  edge 
of  the  sword,  it  is  probable  that  the  only  weapons  used  by 
the  Israelites  were  flint  knives,  bows,  arrows  and  spears 
with  flint  heads,  clubs  and  stone  hatchets — unless,  indeed, 
they  had  captured  something  better  from  Sihon  and  Og. 
They  had  no  machinery  of  assault  nor  chariots  nor  horses, 
nor  did  they  know  the  use  of  metals.  Not  one  of  them  had 
probably  ever  lived  in  a  house  or  constructed  a  fortification. 

The  older  inhabitants,  on  the  contrary,  were  well  advanced 
in  the  arts.  They  had  cities,  situated  for  the  most  part 
in  advantageous  sites  and  walled  with  stone.  They  had 
bronze  weapons  and  implements  of  various  kinds,  and  the 
Philistines  had  just  brought  with  them  iron.  They  had 
stable  governments,  also,  and  many  of  their  arts  and  insti- 
tutions were  those  that  make  up  what  we  call  civilization. 
The  odds  certainly  seemed  to  be  with  the  defenders.  In 
one  respect,  however,  they  were  at  a  serious  disadvantage: 
they  had  no  bond  of  union.  A  century  previous  they  had 
been  united  as  vassals  of  Egypt,  and  in  such  an  invasion  as 
this  they  might  reasonably  have  looked  for  help  to  Ramses  II 
or  even  Ramses  III.  But  the  power  of  Egypt  was  for  a 
time  broken,  and  the  rival  kings  of  the  petty  cities  of  Pal- 

59 


60 


THE   HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH 


Fig.    36— PHILISTINE    PRISONERS    OF    RAMSES    III 

Relief  on  the  second  pylon  at  Medinet  Habu,  Thebes. 

Notice  the  peculiar  head-dress  made  of  feathers ;  likewise  the  hand-cuffs  made 
of  wood  and  suspended  round  the  neck.  Find  a  prisoner  with  elbows  tied 
behind  his  back  and  one  with  arms  tied  over  his  head.  Why  the  scant 
clothing  (Is.  201-4,  and  sec.  123). 


estine  had  fallen  apart;  the  stronger  were  preying  upon  the 
weaker.  As  a  result  they  presented  no  united  front  to  the 
enemy.  Joshua  and  his  warriors  could  conquer  them 
piecemeal. 

34.  A  Canaanite  City.  In  order  to  appreciate  part  at 
least  of  Joshua's  task,  it  may  be  well  to  take  a  look  at  a 
Canaanite  city.  The  following  description  is  condensed 
from  Macalister,  the  excavator  of  Gezer  (A  History  of  Civiliza- 
tion in  Palestine). 


A  CANAANITE  CITY 


61 


The  ridge  of  rock  is  surmounted  by  a  city  about  half  a 
mile  in  length,  surrounded  by  a  colossal  wall  which  is  broken 
at  intervals  by  shallow  projecting  towers.  This  wall  stands 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  above  the  ground  and  is  about  fourteen 


Fig.    37— WALL   AND    RUINS    OF   JERICHO 

Looking  west  to  the  mountains  of  Judea.  The  outer  wall  (right)  is  made  of 
fairly  large  round  stones  piled  up  without  mortar,  and  slopes  inward. 
On  top  of  this  rose  a  wall  of  brick  about  eight  feet  thick.  Behind  this  the 
little  houses  of  brick  and  stone  were  huddled.  Off  the  picture  to  the  left 
was  another  strong  wall  defending  the  citadel.  The  whole  city  measured 
only  1,200  feet  from  north  to  south,  and  about  half  that  in  width.  It  is 
easy  to  see  how  Rahab's  house  might  be  built  on  the  wall  (Josh.  215). 


feet  thick.  The  top  is  protected  by  a  breast-high  parapet 
from  behind  which  the  defenders  can  throw  down  missiles 
on  a  besieging  army.  In  the  wall  facing  us  is  a  gate  of  the 
city — a  narrow  entrance  flanked  by  two  massive  towers 
of    brick.     The    entrance    is    closed    with    two    great    port- 


02  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

cullises  of  wood  dropped  into  the  spaces  between  slabs 
of  stone.  Passing  through  the  gate,  which  is  paved  with 
cobblestones  polished  smooth  by  footwear,  we  see  narrow, 
crooked,  unclean  streets.  Our  nostrils  are  assailed  by  the 
stench  of  an  airless,  drainless,  Oriental  town.  We  see  one- 
story  stone  houses  plastered  with  mud.  The  roofs  are  flat. 
There  is  a  courtyard  around  which  the  two  or  three  rooms 
are  arranged.  There  is  no  furniture.  Human  beings  and 
animals  herd  together  at  night,  the  former  separated  from 
the  latter  by  being  on  a  raised  platform.  Offensive  insects 
infest  every  corner.  Melancholy  dogs  prowl  about.  Here 
is  a  knot  of  children — particularly  evil-looking  morsels  of 
humanity,  with  distended  paunches,  the  result  of  unre- 
strained water-drinking.  They  all  wear  conspicuously  some 
kind  of  amulet  to  avert  the  dreaded  "evil  eye,"  and  they 
wear  very  little  else. 

Passing  inward  from  the  gate  we  soon  come  upon  a  house 
like  the  rest,  but  larger.  It  is  the  home  of  the  "king."  In 
the  courtyard  there  is  an  opening  in  the  rock  which  excites 
our  astonishment.  It  is  the  mouth  of  a  huge  tunnel  that 
sinks  at  an  angle  of  about  thirty  degrees,  some  twelve  feet 
across  and  twenty  high,  with  a  flight  of  stairs  cut  along 
the  bottom  of  it.  This  shaft  goes  down  to  a  spring  which 
by  some  means  the  wise  ones  were  able  to  locate,  still  inside 
the  hill  though  beyond  the  circle  of  the  walls.  This  is  the 
water-supply — useful  always,  but  absolutely  invaluable  in 
time  of  siege. 

Wandering  through  the  crooked  lanes  we  find  ourselves  in 
an  open  square  in  the  highest  part  of  the  city.  This  is  the 
"high  place,"  the  centre  of  the  city's  religious  life.  Here  the 
top  of  the  rocky  ridge  is  exposed.  In  it  they  have  cut  an 
altar  with  steps  mounting  on  one  side;  there  are  curious  cup- 
shaped  hollows  in  the  surrounding  rocky  floor,  for  what 
purpose  we  do  not  know;  there  is  a  stone  with  a  large  square 
excavation  in  it,  probably  a  laver;  and  there  are  half  a  dozen 
standing  pillars  of  stone  from  five  to  seven  feet  high,  round 


A  CANAANITE  CITY 


63 


and  with  rounded  top,  the  dwelling-places  of  the  local  deity 
or  Baal.     (See  also  Fig.  112.) 

Resuming  our  walk,  we  find  a  potter  at  work  in  his  little 
cell  of  a  shop.     He  rotates  the  wheel  with  one  hand  and 


^V  ) 

1 

'        J 

&f'" 

JHM>          f               "^ 

Fig.    38— STONE    PILLARS    OF    GEZER 

Mr.  Macalister,  the  excavator  of  Gezer,  stands  above.  He  has  dug  out  this 
row  of  standing  stones,  the  only  ones  found  so  far  in  Palestine,  and  kept 
back  the  rubbish  with  a  wall  of  stones.  This  is  the  High  Place  of  Gezer. 
These  stones  were  the  symbols — if  not  the  residence — of  the  Baal  of  Gezer. 
The  receptacle  is  probably  for  the  blood  of  sacrifices.  Under  the  pave- 
ment of  this  sanctuary  were  clay  jars  containing  the  bodies  of  children, 
doubtless  used  in  sacrifice.      (I  Kings  1634.) 


shapes  his  dish  crudely  with  the  other.  Next  door  is  a 
worker  in  flint — for  though  bronze  is  now  in  use,  the  old 
material  is  still  used  for  rough  work.  Rock  is  quarried  with 
flint,  wheat  is  reaped  with  a  flint  sickle,  the  skins  of  slaugh- 
tered animals  are  scraped  with  flint.  So  the  tradesman 
finds  plenty  of  custom  as  he  sits  and  splinters  flakes  off  the 
pebbles  that  are  found  in   abundance  in   the  chalky  hills 


64  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

around.  Next  is  a  carpenter  and  joiner,  working  with  tools 
of  bronze  and  bone.  Then  comes  a  weaver  and  next  a  gold- 
smith, who  turns  out  from  his  moulds,  by  the  gross,  copies 
of  earrings  and  amulets  such  as  are  worn  in  Egypt.  He 
never  thinks  of  striking  out  on  an  original  line  of  his  own. 
As  we  look,  a  quarrel  breaks  out  between  him  and  a  cus- 
tomer over  a  false  weight — for  this  man,  like  most  dealers, 
keeps  two  sets  of  weights,  a  heavy  one  to  use  in  buying 
goods  and  a  light  one  to  use  in  selling  them  ! 

So  the  busy  life  of  the  town  goes  on.  Like  all  Orientals, 
the  people  pass  their  time  in  fear  of  the  caprice  of  their 
deity  or  of  their  despot,  but  in  spite  of  fears  they  seem  fairly 
happy  and  contented.  Most  of  them  cultivate  by  day  the 
vineyards  and  fields  that  lie  about  the  foot  of  their  hill,  and 
return  to  their  stuffy  huts  at  night.  They  eat  and  drink, 
they  marry  and  are  given  in  marriage,  they  buy  and  sell, 
and  they  have  no  further  anxieties  until  some  wild  tribe 
sweeps  down  on  their  fields  from  the  desert,  or  some  mighty 
king  from  Egypt  or  the  north  comes  through  on  a  raid.  Then 
it  is  usually  a  choice  between  slavery  and  the  sword. 

35.  The  Capture  of  Jericho.  A  city  just  like  the  one  de- 
scribed lay  directly  in  the  path  of  the  Hebrew  advance.  It 
was  a  city  of  strategic  importance,  for  it  commanded  the 
two  fords  of  the  Jordan  to  the  east  of  it  and  three  important 
trails  that  led  up  into  the  central  highland — one  southwest 
toward  Hebron,  one  west  to  Jerusalem,  and  one  northwest 
to  Bethel.  To  leave  it  untaken  would  be  to  have  all  com- 
munication cut  with  their  base  on  the  Jordan.  Joshua,  the 
new  commander,  sent  spies  at  once,  who  reported  that  the 
inhabitants  were  thoroughly  frightened  at  the  accounts  that 
had  come  of  the  Hebrew  conquest  of  Sihon  and  Og,  and  that 
there  were  those  inside  who  could  be  counted  upon  to  aid. 
Joshua  therefore  attacked  in  force,  awed  the  inhabitants  by 
mysterious  and  silent  marches  around  the  city,  then  stormed 
the  town  through  gates  that  were  treacherously  opened.  In 
the  picturesque  language  of  scripture,  the  walls  fell  down. 


THE   CAPTURE  OF  JERICHO  65 

As  it  was  the  first  prize  taken,  it  was  devoted  to  Jehovah; 
that  is,  it  was  completely  burned;  every  piece  of  gold,  silver, 
bronze,  and  iron  was  turned  into  the  treasury  of  Jehovah, 
and  all  cattle  and  captives — male  and  female,  young  and 
old — were  killed  as  a  thank-offering  to  him.  This  whole- 
sale slaughter  was  nothing  new  to  the  Israelites  or  to  the 
conquered:  all  Semitic  races  used  to  honor  their  gods  in  this 
way.  As  to  the  story  of  the  walls  falling  down,  one  is  in- 
clined to  believe  the  comment  made  by  Professor  George 
Adam  Smith  on  the  history  of  Jericho:  "In  war  she  has 
always  been  easily  taken.  That  her  walls  fell  down  at  the 
sound  of  Joshua's  trumpets  is  no  exaggeration  but  the  sober- 
est summary  of  her  history.  No  great  man  was  ever  born 
in  Jericho;  no  heroic  deed  was  ever  done  in  her.  She  never 
stood  a  siege,  and  her  inhabitants  were  always  running 
away."  If  one  has  ever  experienced  the  enervating  climate 
of  Jericho,  one  can  easily  understand  why  this  was  so. 

36.  The  Accounts  of  Other  Conquests.  The  other  stories 
found  in  Joshua  are  extremely  interesting  and  full  of  hints 
about  primitive  ways  and  peoples.  The  first  city  to  fall 
after  Jericho  was  Ai,  well  up  toward  the  watershed  on  the 
trail  to  Bethel.  The  ancient  stratagem  of  an  ambush  and  a 
pretended  retreat  deceived  the  inhabitants  into  leaving  their 
town  unguarded,  and  the  Hebrews  took  and  devoted  it. 
They  now  held  both  ends  of  the  road  that  led  from  their 
base  by  the  Jordan  to  the  hill-country  they  coveted.  The 
next  incident  shows  that  the  Canaanites,  too,  were  not  igno- 
rant of  stratagems.  An  embassy  of  wayworn  travellers  pre- 
sented themselves  to  Joshua  at  Gilgal  and  asked  him  to 
make  a  treaty  of  peace  with  them  on  the  ground  that  they 
lived  in  a  far  country,  and  having  heard  of  what  the  God  of 
the  Hebrews  had  done  for  them,  wished  to  enjoy  the  favor  of 
this  great  tribe  and  its  powerful  divinity.  Joshua  lost  his 
head  for  the  once — doubtless  not  having  heard  much  flat- 
tery hitherto — and  immediately  made  a  treaty.  The  next 
day  he  found  that  the  far  country  was  Gibeon,  just  over  the 


66  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

hill,  only  six  miles  from  Ai !  The  elders  were  for  breaking 
the  dishonestly  made  bond,  yet  Joshua  kept  to  it,  as  far  at 
least  as  to  spare  the  lives  of  the  Gibeonites,  but  he  com- 
pelled them  to  pay  a  tribute  of  forced  labor  and  to  furnish 
slaves  for  the  sanctuary  of  Jehovah. 

Later  tradition  adds  that  certain  southern  kings  were  by 
this  time  aroused  to  the  menace  of  the  Israelites.  Jerusa- 
lem, Hebron,  Jarmuth,  Lachish,  and  Eglon  leagued  together 
and  attacked  Gibeon,  the  new  Hebrew  ally.  Joshua  rushed 
to  the  rescue,  and  with  the  help  of  Jehovah,  who  "  cast  great 
hailstones  from  the  sky,"  drove  the  five  kings  twenty  miles 
down  into  the  plain,  while,  in  the  language  of  the  old  war- 
song,  "the  sun  and  moon  stood  still,"  that  the  Hebrews 
might  have  daylight  in  which  to  complete  the  slaughter. 
The  five  kings  who  had  taken  refuge  in  a  cave  were  discov- 
ered and  hanged.  Certain  northern  kings,  led  by  Jabin  of 
Hazor,  next  took  fright;  but  Joshua  surprised  them  before 
they  were  completely  mobilized  and  routed  them  by  the 
Waters  of  Merom.  Now,  according  to  the  book  of  Joshua, 
the  land  had  rest;  and  by  means  of  the  sacred  lot  each  tribe 
received  its  inheritance. 

37.  The  Stories  Interpreted.  In  trying  to  understand 
what  actually  took  place  during  the  conquest  we  are  some- 
what confused  by  two  contradictory  points  of  view  pre- 
sented in  the  books  of  Joshua  and  Judges.  Joshua  states 
that  all  the  tribes  went  into  the  land  as  a  unit  and  in  a 
single  war  conquered  the  entire  country;  that  all  the  inhabi- 
tants were  ruthlessly  destroyed  and  the  land  was  divided 
among  the  twelve  tribes;  that  then  the  people  renewed  their 
promise  to  be  faithful  to  Jehovah,  and  Joshua  made  his  fare- 
well address  and  died.  But  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  book  of 
Joshua  is  not  history  in  our  sense  of  that  word.  It  is  ideal- 
ized history,  written  to  teach  later  generations  that  the 
success  of  the  Hebrews  in  conquering  Palestine  was  the 
direct  reward  of  their  faithfulness  to  Jehovah.  The  first 
two  chapters  of  the  book  of  Judges,  on  the  other  hand,  give 


MEANING  OF  THE  JOSHUA  STORIES  67 

us  hints  of  a  far  different  conquest  extending  over  a  much 
longer  time.  It  tells  the  story  of  the  filtering  in  of  a  people, 
of  single  clans  and  tribes  attempting  with  more  or  less  suc- 
cess to  gain  a  foothold  here  or  there,  of  conquest  by  com- 
promise  and   intermarriage   and   assimilation,    the   decision 


Fig.    39— LETTER    FROM    THE    KING    OF    JERUSALEM 

Written  by  King  Abd-Keba.  to  Amenhotep  IV  of  Egypt,  about  1360  b.c. 
One  of  the  nearly  four  hundred  clay  tablets  found  at  Tel  el-Amarna  in 
Egypt,  in  1887.  They  were  unearthed  by  a  peasant  woman  and  sold  to 
an  antiquity  dealer  of  Luxor  for  about  S10,  who  later  sold  them  a  few  at 
a  time  at  prices  ranging  from  $5  to  $750  each !  They  are  now  mostly 
in  the  British  Museum.  They  all  tell  of  an  invasion  of  Palestine  by  a 
people  called  the  Khabiri,  who,  as  we  now  know,  wrested  all  Palestine  from 
the  control  of  Egypt. 


hanging  long  in  the  balance  as  to  which  side  would  ulti- 
mately prevail.  Judah,  accompanied  by  Simeon  and  the 
Kenites,  went  up  first  and  possessed  the  south  country — if, 
indeed,  they  did  not  come  in  directly  from  the  south  a  gen- 
eration or  so  before  the  others.  The  Joseph-tribes  took 
root  in  the  centre  of  the  land,  while  the  minor  tribes  mingled 
with  the  Canaanites  north  of  Esdraelon  and  nearly  lost  them- 
selves. When  the  first  Hebrew  immigrants  passed  away, 
the  conquest  was  far  from  complete.  The  northern  tribes 
had  little  more  to  do  than  find  a  place  to  settle  among  the 
older  inhabitants.  The  central  tribes  could  not  conquer  the 
plain    because   the    Canaanites   had   chariots    of   iron;    and 


68  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

everywhere  the  fortified  cities  defied  the  invaders.  Cutting 
off  the  Judah-tribes  from  the  Joseph-tribes  was  a  chain  of 
fortresses  with  Jerusalem  as  a  centre;  while  between  the 
Joseph-tribes  and  the  northern  group  was  another  chain 
across  Esdraelon  and  the  maritime  plain,  from  Bethshean  by 
the  Jordan,  through  Taanach  and  Megiddo  to  Dor  on  the 
Mediterranean.  These  political  barriers  prevented  the  He- 
brews from  acting  in  concert  and  delayed  their  conquest  of 
the  land.  All  through  the  so-called  period  of  the  Judges  we 
see  the  struggle  going  on,  and  not  until  the  time  of  David 
were  the  Canaanite  lines  broken  and  the  divisions  healed. 
Then  for  a  brief  century  the  Hebrews  were  a  united  people, 
and  the  undisputed  masters  of  central  and  eastern  Palestine. 


VII 
THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 

38.  Israel's  Dangerous  Position.  Realizing  as  we  now  do 
that  the  conquest  was  not  an  act  but  a  process,  we  are  in  a 
position  to  trace  in  detail  the  dangers  that  surrounded  the 
Hebrews. 

The  first  danger  was  the  possibility  of  extermination. 
The  tribes  had  deliberately  come  among  hostile  foes  who 
now  ringed  them  completely  about.  Between  the  Hebrews 
and  the  eastern  desert  lay  the  Arameans  (north),  the  Am- 
monites (centre),  and  the  Moabites  (south).  Cutting  them 
off  from  the  southern  steppe  land  lay  the  Edomites  (south- 
east) and  the  Amalekites  (southwest).  Between  them  and 
the  sea  lay  two  powerful  peoples,  the  Philistines  (south)  and 
the  Canaanites  (centre  and  north).  Moreover,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  Canaanite  cities  quite  cut  them  in  two  at  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  and  nearly  so  at  the  valley  of  Ajalon  in  the 
south.  The  Hebrews  must  do  or  die.  They  must  strike 
root  and  grow  till  their  neighbors  are  crowded  off  the  map, 
or  they  themselves  will  wither  and  be  absorbed.  Which 
alternative  will  result  is  bound  to  be  determined  by  the 
relative  physical  and  moral  strength  of  the  Hebrews  and 
their  neighbors. 

The  second  danger  lay  in  the  change  in  occupation  that 
the  conquest  made  necessary,  and  the  consequent  adjust- 
ment to  new  conditions  of  life.  Hitherto  the  Hebrews  had 
been  nomads  and*  shepherds;  henceforth  they  must  become 
farmers,  vine-dressers,  artisans,  tradesfolk.  It  was  a  ques- 
tion whether  they  could  stop  roving,  whether  they  could 
master  the  difficult  art  of  husbandry  in  a  land  of  variable 

69 


-() 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


and  often  doubtful  rainfall;  whether  they  could  give  up 
tents  and  live  huddled  together  in  unhealthy  stone  villages 
and  survive  the  new  forms  of  disease  that  would  surely 
come.     The  change  was  a  test  of  intelligence,  of  physique, 


Fig.    40— VINEYARD    OF    HEBRON 

Note  how  the  soil  had  to  be  cleared  of  stones.  Each  vine  is  about  five  feet  long, 
the  free  end  propped  up  on  shears.  The  branches  are  pruned  off  close  to 
this  stump  each  season  so  that  all  the  strength  of  the  vine  shall  go  into  the 
grapes.  August  is  the  month  for  gathering.  Hebron  has  always  been 
famous  for  its  grapes,  since  the  time  of  the  spies  (Num.  1323). 


of  courage,  of  staying  power.  Some  of  the  tribes  could  not 
meet  the  test:  Simeon  relapsed  to  nomadic  life,  the  half- 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  east  of  the  Jordan,  was  largely  absorbed 
by  the  Arameans,  Reuben  by  the  Moabites,  and  Asher 
changed  the  plough  and  the  ox  goad  for  the  oar,  becoming 
practically  Phoenician. 

The  third  danger  was  a  political  one.  We  have  seen  that 
from  the  earliest  days  the  Hebrews  had  been  thoroughly 
democratic.  The  families  or  clans  were  all  on  the  same 
level  of  rights  and  opportunities,  with  special  privilege  for 


ISRAEL'S  DANGEROUS  POSITION 


'I 


Fig. 


41— A    THRESHING- 
FLOOR 


none.  Their  free  nomadic  life  for  two  generations  had  con- 
firmed their  love  for  their  democratic  life  and  institutions. 
But  now  they  had  come  into  close  and  hostile  contact  with 
the  Canaanites  and,  the  Amorites,  whose  type  of  govern- 
ment was  a  petty  autoc- 
racy in  which  a  ruling 
family  or  the  appointee 
of  some  military  despot- 
ism like  Egypt  owned  all 
the  inhabitants  as  mere 
vassals  and  used  them  to 
defend  or  extend  his 
power.  We  know  from 
the  Hebrew  records  that 
the  existence  of  these 
kings  and  their  success 
in  war  was  a  powerful  in- 
centive to  the  Hebrews 
to  drop  their  loose  tribal 
form  of  government  and 
copy  the  nations  round. 
In  time  they  yielded    to 

this  influence,  but  never  completely.  The  democratic  spirit 
in  Israel  never  died.  Indeed,  Israel's  subsequent  history  is 
largely  the  story  of  how  this  instinct  for  democracy  fought 
for  expression  and  refused  to  die  even  when  the  political 
life  of  the  nation  was  blotted  out  by  Babylon  and  by  Rome. 
The  fourth  and  greatest  danger  lay  in  the  realm  of  relig- 
ion. Coming  fresh  from  the  desert,  with  enthusiasm  still 
burning  for  the  God  who  had  delivered  them  from  the  perils 
of  Egypt  and  the  wilderness,  the  Hebrews  had  at  least  this 
bond  of  union  among  themselves  and  this  difference  from 
their  neighbors:  they  were  Jehovah-worshippers,  with  a 
simple  and  relatively  pure  morality  adapted  to  their  mode 
of  life.  But  now  they  had  come  to  a  land  over  which  Jeho- 
vah was  believed  to  have  no  jurisdiction.     They  were  in  a 


Every  village  has  a  bare  level  place,  prefer- 
ably a  ledge  of  rock,  on  which  the 
grain  is  threshed.  The  most  primi- 
tive method  is  to  turn  in  a  group  of 
cattle,  tied  together,  and  drive  them 
around  through  the  spread-out  sheaves 
till  their  hoofs  have  crushed  the  wheat- 
heads.  For  another  method,  see  Fig. 
42. 


72  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

land  of  Baals.  Every  spring  and  hilltop  and  village  tree 
had  its  divine  or  demon  proprietor  who  must  be  fed  and 
otherwise  made  comfortable  if  the  newcomers  wished  any 
peace  or  prosperity.  Jehovah  was  a  shepherd's  god,  to  be 
worshipped  with  the  firstlings  of  the  flocks;  Baal  was  a 
farmer's  god,  to  be  honored  with  the  first-fruits  of  the  soil. 
Being  no  longer  shepherds  and  in  a  foreign  land,  many  of 
the  Hebrews  felt  that  they  were  no  longer  under  any  prac- 
tical necessity  to  be  loyal  to  Jehovah. 

39.  Jehovah's  Rival.  Let  us  imagine  a  definite  case.  A 
Hebrew  stakes  out  a  claim  in  the  hollow  to  the  south  of 
Bethel  and  begins  to  till  the  soil.  He  buys  or  steals  his  seed 
from  a  Canaanite  neighbor,  sows  it  by  guess,  and  sits  down 
to  wait  for  the  harvest.  Somehow  the  harvest  does  not 
come;  the  grain  turns  yellow  before  it  heads.  He  goes 
anxiously  to  his  Canaanite  friend,  who  asks  him:  "Did  you 
make  sacrifice  to  the  Baal  who  owns  the  field  and  lives  in 
the  big  tree  at  the  end  of  it?"  The  Hebrew  confesses  that 
since  he  is  a  Jehovah-worshipper  he  did  not.  Whereupon 
he  is  told  that  he  may  expect  no  crops  till  he  sacrifices  to 
Baal.  Not  being  rich  enough  to  stand  a  second  loss,  he 
takes  his  friend's  advice  next  season,  allows  the  Canaanite 
to  teach  him  the  correct  method  of  worship  and  incidentally 
to  give  him  some  valuable  points  on  how  and  when  to  sow  and 
how  to  take  care  of  his  field.  Next  harvest-time  there  is  a 
bumper  crop.  The  Hebrew  shows  his  joy  by  buying  the 
Canaanite's  daughter  as  a  wife  for  his  son,  and  by  becoming 
a  constant  worshipper  at  the  Baal-tree.  Of  course  he  wor- 
ships Jehovah,  too,  for  old  time's  sake;  but  he  understands 
that  the  god  whom  it  pays  to  cultivate,  now  that  he  has 
become  a  farmer,  is  Baal. 

This  little  episode  makes  real  the  crowning  danger.  There 
was  not  a  feature  of  the  new  life  the  Hebrews  had  to  lead 
that  was  not  connected  with  Canaanite  religion — for  religion 
in  those  days  was  not  a  separate  function  but  a  vital  part 
of  all  living.     It  was  necessary  to  appease  the  Baal  when  a 


JEHOVAH'S  RIVAL  73 

new  house  was  built,  when  seed  was  sown,  when  grapes  and 
olives  were  gathered,  when  sheep  were  sheared,  when  chil- 
dren were  born,  when  people  married  or  died.  Every  one 
firmly  believed  that  all  calamities  came  to  men  because  of 


Fig.    42— A   THRESHING    SLEDGE 

Made  of  planks,  in  the  under  side  of  which  are  inserted  stones.  The  driver 
rides  on  the  sledge  as  the  cattle  drag  it  over  the  grain  spread  out  on  the 
threshing-floor.  The  stones  tear  the  straw  and  the  grain  falls  out  of  the 
heads. 


some  slight  to  one  of  the  gods.  It  behooved  everybody, 
therefore,  to  keep  on  the  best  of  terms  with  all  possible  divin- 
ities; which  in  plain  words  means  that  every  Hebrew  had 
to  become  an  idolater.  He  had  to  worship  the  local  gods  of 
whatever  part  of  the  land  he  occupied,  as  well  as  the  larger 
gods — like  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars — who  controlled  the 
weather.  At  the  same  time  he  must  faithfully  bring  offer- 
ings to  his  tribal  god,  Jehovah,  and  to  the  spirits  of  his  ances- 
tors, as  represented  by  the  teraphim,  or  household  gods.  Is 
it  any  wonder  that  the  poor  Hebrew  forgot  Jehovah  more 
or  less  !  The  danger  lies  just  here:  If  he  forgets  Jehovah  he 
has  nothing  left  to  distinguish  him  from  his  neighbors.     His 


74  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

morals,  influenced  by  the  example  of  his  neighbors  and  by 
the  debasing  rites  with  which  the  Baals  are  worshipped,  will 
become  corrupt,  and  in  three  generations  there  will  be  no 
Hebrews. 

40.  The  Narratives  in  Judges  and  Their  Religious  Teach- 
ings. The  final  editors  of  the  book  of  Judges,  living  in 
post-exilic  times  centuries  after  the  events  they  described, 
recognized  clearly  in  the  light  of  history  that  the  great  dan- 
ger of  this  period  was  loss  of  their  distinctive  religion.  They 
felt  also  that  Jehovah  had  tried  in  every  way  to  keep  his 
people  faithful  to  him  by  bringing  calamities  upon  them 
whenever  they  seriously  neglected  him,  and  blessings  when 
they  were  faithful.  They  therefore  took  the  old  stories 
about  the  heroes  and  champions  and  set  them  into  a  frame- 
work that  tended  to  bring  out  this  theory  of  history.  This 
framework  without  any  illustration  is  given  in  Judges  213 19: 
"And  they  forsook  Jehovah,  and  burned  sacrifices  to  Baal 
and  Astarte.  And  Jehovah  was  incensed  against  Israel,  and 
he  sold  them  into  the  power  of  their  enemies  on  all  sides,  so 
that  they  were  no  longer  able  to  withstand  their  foes.  And 
Jehovah  raised  up  judges,  and  delivered  the  Israelites  from 
those  who  despoiled  them,  for  Jehovah  was  moved  to  pity 
by  their  groans.  But  when  the  judge  died,  they  would 
slide  back  and  act  worse  than  their  fathers  in  running  after 
other  gods."  In  reality  these  stories  tell  how  the  Hebrew 
instinct  for  freedom,  the  right  of  self-determination,  refused 
to  be  crushed,  and  how  out  of  the  ranks  of  the  people  them- 
selves arose  the  patriots  who  saved  their  tribe.  They  pre- 
sent a  picture  of  democracy  creating  its  own  saviors. 

A  condensed  account  of  what  the  five  most  important  judges 
or  deliverers  accomplished  is  here  given. 

41.  The  Moabite  Oppression.  The  Moabites,  who  a  gen- 
eration earlier  had  tried  to  get  rid  of  the  Hebrews  by  magic 
(Sec.  27),  now  under  King  Eglon  found  courage  to  try  the 
sword.  Their  success  was  not  large,  but  they  probably  re- 
took the  old  Moabite  cities  that  Israel  had  captured  north 


THE  MOABITE  OPPRESSION 


75 


of  the  Arnon,  and  occupied  Jericho  with  its  adjacent  lands 

and    fords,    which    belonged    to    Benjamin.      For    eighteen 

years  little  Benjamin  paid  its  tribute  of  oil  and  wine  and 

wool;  then  the  "spirit  of  Jehovah"  stirred  up  a  man  named 

Ehud,  who  planned  a  bold  stroke  for  liberty.     He  made  him 

a  rude  double-edged  sword  fourteen 

inches  long,  without  a  guard  on  it, 

and    being  left-handed  he  hung  it 

under  his  sheepskin  jacket   on   his 

right  side.    Having  gone  with  others 

in  charge  of  the  yearly  tribute,  he 

sought  a  private  audience  with  King 

Eglon  on  the  ground  that  he  had  a 

message    for    him     from     Jehovah. 

When  the  king  reverently  stood  to 

receive  the  message,  Ehud  delivered 

it  pointblank  and  beyond  the  hilt ! 

The  assassin  then  made  his  escape, 

rallied  his  forces,  seized  the  fords  of 

the  Jordan  and  so  rid  the  land  of 

its  oppressors. 

42.  The  Canaanite  Oppression. 
The  story  of  the  defeat  of  the  Ca- 
naanites  concerns  chiefly  the  north- 
ern tribes  on  both  sides  of  Esdraelon.  This  was  the  region 
of  greatest  Canaanite  strength,  and  the  persecution  to  which 
they  subjected  the  Hebrews  was  cruel.  People  no  longer 
dared  to  travel  the  regular  roads  for  fear  of  robbery  and 
violence,  but  took  to  secret  paths.  The  first  to  break  this 
yoke  of  fear  was  the  prophetess  Deborah,  and  she  used  the 
only  rallying-cry  that  could  have  been  effective  in  the  case: 
"Come  up  to  the  help  of  Jehovah  against  the  mighty!" 
She  saw  too  that  fidelity  to  Jehovah,  and  that  alone,  meant 
national  existence.  With  this  conviction  she  inspired  Barak 
of  Kadesh-Naphtali  to  assemble  on  Mount  Tabor  some  10,- 
000  men  of  the  northern  and  central  tribes,  and  to  try  con- 


Fig.  43— WINNOWING 
Small  wooden  shovels  are 
used  to  throw  the  mixed 
grain  and  chaff  into  the 
air.  The  strong  wind 
that  blows  in  harvest 
time  drives  the  chaff 
away  while  the  grain 
falls  to  the  ground. 


76 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


elusions  with  their  oppressors.  Sisera,  the  Canaanite  leader, 
met  the  revolt  promptly  with  900  chariots  of  iron  and  many 
men.  Their  rendezvous  was  Harosheth,  that  guarded  the 
western  exit  of  Esdraclon,  where  the  Kishon  breaks  through 


.^, 

'. 

r—  : 

HjM> '  jr 

^38 

- 

**$k 

mm 

. 

Fig.    44— MOUNT    TABOR 

This  well-rounded  dome  is  1,843  feet  high.  It  is  dotted  all  over  with  scrub- 
oaks,  and  surmounted  by  a  Latin  and  a  Greek  monastery  built  because  of 
the  tradition  (unfounded)  that  the  Transfiguration  took  place  here  (Matt. 
17i-2). 


between  the  hills  of  Galilee  and  Mount  Carmel.  The  Canaan- 
ites  took  the  offensive.  They  marched  eastward  along  the 
highway  that  joined  their  strong  cities  of  Megiddo  and 
Taanach  and  Bethshean,  in  order  to  cut  off  any  help  the 
Hebrews  might  receive  from  the  south  and  to  enable  them- 
selves the  more  easily  to  absorb  the  conquered  fragments. 
Barak  held  his  men  in  leash  until  the  long  line  of  their  foes 
had  advanced  far  out  across  the  soft,  alluvial  plain — all  easily 
seen  from  the  summit  of  Tabor.  Then,  just  after  the  van- 
guard of  the  Canaanites  had  crossed  the  narrow,  treacherous 


THE  CANAANITE  OPPRESSION 


77 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  X.  Y, 

Fig.    45— PLAIN    OF    ESDRAELON 

A  ■wonderfully  beautiful  triangular  plain,  15-20  miles  on  a  side.  You  are 
standing  at  Jezreel  and  looking  west.  The  dark  patches  are  cloud- 
shadows.  The  light  patch  near  the  centre,  to  which  the  paths  lead,  is  the 
village  of  El-fuleh,  a  station  on  the  Haifa-Damascus  railway,  the  junction 
of  the  new  military  branch  to  Egypt,  and  the  focal-point  of  all  the  caravan 
lines  that  cross  the  plain.  The  hills  in  the  distance  are  those  near  Nazareth 
(right)  and  Mount  Carmel  (left).  The  break  where  these  two  meet  is 
the  place  where  the  river  Kishon  passes  through  to  the  sea. 

This  is  the  famous  Armageddon,  battle-ground  of  the  nations.  In  addition  to 
the  biblical  fights  and  the  Roman  and  crusading  campaigns,  Napoleon  was 
beaten  here  at  El-fuleh,  and  in  Sept.,  19 IS,  General  Allenby  captured 
the  same  town  from  the  Turks  on  his  victorious  final  campaign. 


78  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

ford  of  the  Kishon,  like  a  thunderbolt  he  launched  his  columns 
full  at  Sisera's  centre.  Providentially  at  the  moment  of  im- 
pact there  burst  a  tremendous  thunder-storm  which  turned 
the  soft-soiled  plain  into  a  quagmire.  The  horses  plunged,  the 
iron  chariots  sank  to  their  hubs,  the  soldiers  caught  panic 
from  the  storm,  which  they  attributed,  as  did  the  Hebrews, 
to  the  wrath  of  some  god,  and  soon  the  battle  became  a 
Canaanite  rout  in  which  the  swollen  Kishon  and  the  miry 
plain  claimed  more  victims  than  the  sword.  Sisera  the 
general  fled,  only  to  meet  death  treacherously  at  the  hands 
of  a  woman  in  whose  tent  he  took  refuge.  This  battle  was 
one  of  the  most  important  in  Hebrew  history,  for  it  settled  the 
question  of  supremacy  in  the  whole  central  region  in  favor  of 
the  Hebrews  and  the  Hebrew  God,  and  left  them  free  to 
establish  their  democratic  institutions  in  the  land  of  their 
adoption. 

43.  The  Midianite  Oppression.  The  Midianites  came 
first  within  the  Hebrew  horizon  during  the  wilderness  wan- 
derings. They  were  a  Bedouin  tribe  whose  special  grazing- 
lands  were  east  of  the  Red  Sea,  but  who  evidently  ranged 
at  times  along  the  whole  northwestern  edge  of  the  Arabian 
desert.  In  the  story  in  Judges  we  find  them  making  annual 
raids  upon  central  Palestine  just  when  the  inhabitants  had 
harvested  their  grain,  and  taking  it  all  away,  while  their 
countless  cattle  ate  up  all  that  was  left  in  the  fields.  Jeho- 
vah spoke  to  a  powerful  farmer  named  Gideon  and  in  a 
vision  placed  before  him  his  great  opportunity  to  save 
Israel.  Immediately  Gideon  called  upon  the  men  of  his 
clan  to  follow  him.  By  a  personal  night  reconnaissance  he 
assured  himself  that  his  enemies  were  as  nervous  as  his 
own  men.  He  then  devised  the  stratagem  of  a  night  attack 
with  torches  and  horns,  by  which  he  made  the  enemy  think 
that  his  three  hundred  soldiers  were  three  hundred  captains, 
each  with  a  regiment  at  his  back.  By  taking  the  precau- 
tion to  surround  on  three  sides  the  right  flank  of  the  Midian- 
ites he  forced  them  to  flee  down  the  valley  eastward.     The 


THE  MIDIANITE  OPPRESSION 


79 


flight  became  a  rout.  Gideon  did  not  desist  in  the  pursuit  un- 
til he  had  driven  what  was  left  of  the  Midianites  across  the 
eastern  plateau  to  the  desert.  He  slew  their  two  kings  with 
his  own  hand  and  took  their  clothes  and  their  jewels  as  a 
trophy.  On  his  return,  when  the  men  of  his  tribe  sought  to 
make   him   king,   with  ■  true   democratic  spirit  he  declined, 


Ground 


Level 


Fig.    46— UNDERGROUND    WINE-PRESS 

Excavated  in  the  limestone  rock  about  an  hour's  walk  northwest  of  Ram- 
allah.  The  grapes  were  trodden  in  the  circular  press,  and  the  juice  ran 
over  into  the  square  vat,  whence  it  was  dipped  out  into  skins.  In  such 
a  place  Gideon  beat  out  his  wheat  and  winnowed  it  with  a  wing-fan,  so 
that  the  puffs  of  chaff  that  usually  rise  from  the  out-of-door  threshing- 
floors  would  not  tell  any  tales  to  the  Midianites  (Sec.  43,  and  Jd.  611). 


taking  instead  the  earrings  that  his  soldiers  had  stripped 
from  the  slain — 1,700  shekels  of  gold  (about  seventy  pounds' 
weight).  So  great,  however,  was  Gideon's  prestige  that  his 
half-Amorite  son,  Abimelech,  was  made  king  after  his  death. 
This  was  the  first  instance  in  which  the  despotic  Amorite  idea 
of  government  overcame  the  Hebrew  intolerance  of  all  hered- 
itary authority.  But  Abimelech's  autocratic  reign  was  short- 
lived.    Democracy  could  not  be  downed  so  easily. 

44.  The  Ammonite  Oppression.  When  they  came  up 
from  the  south  along  the  edge  of  the  desert,  the  Hebrews 
had  avoided  conflict  with  the  Ammonites.     Instead,   they 


80  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

dispossessed  Sihon  and  thrust  themselves  in  between  Ammon 
and  the  Jordan.  The  Ammonites  proved  a  thorn  in  Israel's 
side   for    many    generations    even    down    to    Roman    times. 


Fig.    47— GIDEON'S    FOUNTAIN 

You  are  looking  south  across  the  valley  of  .Tezreel  to  Mount  Gilboa.  which  is  a 
range  of  bare  lulls  in  crescent  form  (see  contour  map  of  Esdraelon).  The 
straight  line  across  the  centre  is  the  railroad  from  Haifa  (right)  to  Beth- 
shean  and  Damascus  (left).  The  cluster  of  houses  belongs  to  a  Jewish 
colony.  The  hole  in  the  hill  at  the  extreme  right  of  the  picture  is  Gideon*s 
Fountain  or  the  Well  of  Harod,  where,  according  to  a  late  tradition,  Gideon 
put  his  warriors  to  their  famous  test  (Jd.  71-  47)-  On  this  mountain  Saul 
and  Jonathan  lost  their  lives  (I  Sam.  311-6).     Cf.  Fig.  53. 

They  began  by  making  the  unreasonable  demand  that  all 
the  east-Jordan  territory  that  Israel  had  taken  from  Sihon 
be  returned  to  them  on  the  ground  that  it  was  originally 
theirs;  and  they  were  backing  up  their  claim  by  raids  on 
the  Hebrew  farmers,  even  west  of  the  Jordan,  accompanied 
by  acts  of  the  utmost  cruelty.     Affairs  at  last  reached  the 


THE  AMMONITE  OPPRESSION  81 

breaking-point,  and  the  elders  of  Gilead  picked  out  to  lead 
them  against  their  oppressors  a  rough  half-breed  outlaw 
named  Jephthah.  He  made  a  successful  drive  and  rid  his 
country  of  them  for  a  generation  or  two — till  the  time  of 
King  Saul.  His  victory  brought  a  crushing  grief  to  him, 
however,  for  he  felt  compelled  to  sacrifice  to  Jehovah  his 
daughter,  an  only  child,  in  consequence  of  a  rash  vow  that 
he  had  made  before  going  into  battle.  The  leadership  that 
Jephthah  thus  obtained  over  Gilead  was  virtually  that  of  a 
military  dictator,  but,  like  Abimelech's,  it  was  short-lived. 
The  people  were  not  yet  ready  to  surrender  their  freedom. 

45.  The  Philistine  Oppression.  When  the  Philistines 
were  turned  back  from  the  Nile  Delta  by  Ramses  III  to  the 
maritime  plain  of  Palestine,  they  were  content  for  a  genera- 
tion or  so  with  a  comparatively  small  territory.  But  now 
they  were  beginning  to  grow  and  to  crowd  their  neighbors. 
The  southern  clans  of  the  Canaanites,  who  were  caught 
between  the  upper  millstone  of  the  Hebrews  and  the  lower 
of  the  Philistines,  were  the  first  to  go;  and  thus  two  hardy 
nations  of  different  ancestry  came  into  hostile  contact. 
The  stories  in  Judges  tell  of  the  advance  skirmishes  that 
took  place  between  the  Hebrews  and  the  Philistines  in  the 
hill  country  where  the  central  mountains  break  down  into 
the  plain.  Little  Dan,  that  had  settled  in  this  dangerous 
border-land,  first  felt  the  pressure,  and  in  the  person  of  their 
burly  hero  Samson,  fought  the  Philistines  single-handed. 
Samson  bears  all  the  marks  of  a  popular  hero.  He  was  not 
heroic  enough  to  accomplish  anything  for  his  nation,  but 
was  just  strong  enough  and  had  just  enough  bravado  to 
keep  himself  in  the  limelight.  The  stories  that  have  been 
preserved  of  him  are  the  most  tangy  in  Hebrew  literature. 
By  their  mingling  of  wit,  marvel,  and  racy  encounter  they 
give  proof  that  generations  of  story-tellers  have  enlivened 
with  them  the  camp-fires  and  homes  of  the  people. 

46.  The  Samson  Hero  Tales.  According  to  Hebrew  tradi- 
tion Samson's  birth  was  attended  with  supernatural  signs, 


82  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

and  as  a  mark  of  his  special  character  his  parents  made  him 
a  Nazarite,  that  is,  made  it  unlawful  for  him  to  eat  certain 
meats  and  drinks  and  to  cut  his  hair.  His  first  encounter 
with  the  Philistines  comes  in  connection  with  a  Philistine 
girl  from  Timnath.  On  account  of  his  parents'  protest  he 
cannot  have  a  home  wedding,  and  so  he  arranges  for  the 
ceremony  at  Timnath,  with  thirty  young  Philistines  for 
bridesmaids.  Samson  opens  the  week's  festivities  with  a 
riddle  based  on  a  recent  adventure  of  his  with  a  lion,  and 
makes  a  bet  of  thirty  suits  of  clothes  that  his  friends  cannot 
guess  it  in  seven  days.  Anxious  to  outdo  their  rival,  they 
frighten  the  bride  into  wheedling  the  secret  out  of  Samson; 
so  that  when  the  appointed  day  comes  they  give  him  the 
correct  answer.  Samson  loses  his  temper,  pays  his  bet  by 
killing  thirty  Philistines  and  confiscating  their  clothes;  then 
leaves  town  before  the  matrimonial  knot  is  tied.  The  pros- 
pective father-in-law,  to  cover  his  chagrin  and  to  save  fu- 
ture expense,  marries  the  girl  on  the  spot  to  Samson's  best 
man  !  A  few  months  later  Samson  repents  and  comes  down 
to  complete  the  ceremony;  but  when  the  father  explains 
that  the  girl  has  been  placed  elsewhere,  Samson  takes  re- 
venge by  catching  three  hundred  foxes,  tying  firebrands  to 
their  tails  and  turning  them  loose  in  the  Philistine  grain- 
fields.  As  a  Roland  for  his  Oliver,  the  Philistines  proceed 
to  burn  up  the  girl,  her  father,  and  his  household;  whereat 
Samson  proves  that  he  has  been  genuinely  in  love  by  killing 
Philistines  until  he  is  tired  ! 

The  men  of  Judah  now  see  that  Samson  is  getting  the 
Hebrews  a  bad  name,  for  the  Philistines  make  a  raid  on 
them  in  reprisal.  They  therefore  persuade  Samson  to  let 
them  bind  him  and  deliver  him  to  his  enemies.  Samson  no 
doubt  enjoys  the  joke,  for  when  the  transfer  is  made,  he 
breaks  his  bonds  as  if  they  were  tow,  and  seizing  the  jaw- 
bone of  an  ass  he  slays  a  thousand  of  them. 

In  his  next  adventure  at  Gaza,  where  his  foes  imagine 
that  they  have  entrapped  him,  he  carries  off  the  city  gates, 
and  leaves  them  at  Hebron  forty  miles  away ! 


THE  SAMSON  HERO  TALES 


83 


His  final  matrimonial  venture  proves  his  undoing.  His 
new  wife,  Delilah,  is  bribed  by  the  Philistine  chiefs  to  find 
out  the  secret  of  Samson's  marvellous  strength.     Samson 


Fig.    48— A    LOOM 

The  weaver  sits  on  the  floor  of  his  house  with  his  feet  in  a  pit.  There  he  works 
the  treadles  by  which  the  warp-threads  are  shifted  so  that  the  shuttle  may 
pass  between  them  now  on  one  side  and  now  on  the  other.  The  shuttle 
is  thrown  by  hand.  A  plank  that  swings  from  above  drives  home  the  woof- 
threads.  This  driving  is  sometimes  done  by  a  big  wooden  stick  called  a 
"pin"  (Jd.  16u).  The  finished  cloth  is  wound  upon  a  horizontal  roller. 
Find  in  the  picture  as  many  of  these  details  as  possible. 

When  Delilah  wove  Samson's  hair  into  her  loom,  Samson  pulled  all  of  the  posts 
of  the  loom  out  of  the  ground  and  walked  away  with  them  hanging  to  his 
hair  (Sec.  46,  and  Jd.  1614). 


deceives  her  for  a  time,  and  no  doubt  enjoys  to  the  full 
the  discomfiture  of  his  enemies  as  they  come  upon  him 
bound  with  enchanted  bowstrings,  or  magic  new  ropes,  or 
lying  with  his  long  hair  woven  fast  into  the  web  of  Delilah's 
loom,  only  to  see  him  snap  his  bonds  or  pull  up  the  loom  by 


84  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

the  roots  !  But  at  last  in  a  fit  of  impatience  at  her  constant 
teasing  he  tells  her  the  truth:  his  strength  lies  in  his  uncut 
hair.  Delilah  proceeds  to  relieve  him  of  his  locks  during 
his  next  nap,  and  the  shorn  and  fallen  hero  is  seized  by  the 
Philistines,  is  blinded  and  made  to  grind  in  the  prison-house 
at  Gaza. 

The  lords  of  the  Philistines  now  hold  high  festival  before 
their  god  Dagon,  to  thank  him  for  the  capture  of  their 
enemy,  and  they  bring  out  Samson  to  amuse  them.  Sam- 
son's hair,  however,  has  had  time  to  grow,  so  that  as  he 
feels  the  pillars  that  hold  up  the  temple  roof,  he  knows  that 
he  has  one  last  chance  for  vengeance.  With  a  prayer  to 
Jehovah  for  strength  enough  to  pay  the  Philistines  for  at 
least  one  of  his  eyes,  he  presses  the  columns  apart  and 
brings  the  house  down  upon  himself  and  his  captors. 

47.  The  Result  of  the  Oppressions.  A  glance  at  Map 
No.  9  will  make  clear  one  result  at  least  of  these  various 
oppressions.  Delivered  as  they  were  on  all  sides  like  trip- 
hammer blows  upon  a  loosely  compacted  people,  the  inevi- 
table consequence  was  to  weld  Israel  together.  The  logic 
of  events  was  gradually  proving  to  them  that  single  tribes 
could  not  cope  with  foes  so  persistent  and  so  powerful; 
Israel  had  to  unite  or  die.  Each  oppression  was  an  argu- 
ment, and  the  arguments  though  not  yet  conclusive  were 
beginning  to  tell.  One  more  and  a  mightier  one  was  needed; 
and  the  Philistines  furnished  that  argument  when  a  little 
later  they  captured  the  very  palladium  of  Hebrew  indepen- 
dence, the  ark  of  Jehovah. 


VIII 

DEMOCRACY   UNDER   SAMUEL   AND    SAUL 

48.  The  Philistine  Domination.  Samson's  selfish  career 
brought  no  deliverance  to  his  nation.  That  weak  strong- 
man had  no  vision,  saw  no  menace  to  anything  but  his  own 
pleasure,  and  therefore  rallied  none  to  the  support  of  Israel. 
The  Philistines  steadily  stalked  northward  and  eastward 
across  the  plain  of  Sharon  to  Mount  Carmel,  devouring  the 
Canaanite  farmers,  and  striking  their  talons  into  the  foot- 
hills; and  at  last  they  crouched  to  spring  upon  the  mountain 
fastnesses  of  Judah  and  Ephraim.  The  Hebrews  met  the 
attack  bravely  at  Ebenezer,  but  went  down  at  the  first 
shock.  Then  they  thought  of  the  ark  of  Jehovah,  which  to 
their  minds  represented  the  very  presence  of  Jehovah  him- 
self, the  Lord  of  the  hosts  of  Israel.  If  their  God  could  be 
with  them  in  person,  they  would  conquer.  So  they  took 
the  ark  from  its  shrine  at  Shiloh,  no  doubt  repeating  the 
ancient  prayer  of  their  ancestors: 

"Arise,  O  Jehovah,  and  let  thine  enemies  be  scattered; 
Let  them  that  hate  thee  flee  before  thee!" 

But  their  hopes  were  vain.  The  ark  aroused  the  Philis- 
tines to  greater  valor,  and  the  Hebrews  met  a  crushing 
defeat.  Shiloh,  the  sacred  resting-place  of  Jehovah,  was 
raided  and  destroyed  forever,  the  bonds  of  slavery  were  laid 
upon  all  central  Palestine,  and  the  God  of  Israel  went  with 
his  ark  into  captivity  among  the  Philistines. 

The  story  of  the  adventures  of  the  ark  belongs  to  the 
realm  of  legend  rather  than  history,  but  it  serves  to  show 

85 


86  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

the  religious  ideas  that  were  common  in  those  days.  When 
the  Philistines  placed  the  ark  of  Jehovah  in  the  temple  of 
their  god  Dagon  at  Ashdod,  Dagon  mysteriously  tumbled 
off  his  pedestal  and  was  shattered.  Soon  the  men  of  Ashdod 
were  smitten  with  boils,  and  in  terror  they  sent  the  ark  to 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig     49— SHILOH 

You  are  looking  northeast.  Behind  the  mountain  lies  the  Jordan  valley;  not 
far  to  the  left  is  the  watershed.  The  valley  across  which  you  look  is  the 
one  where  the  Benjamites  stole  their  wives  (.Id.  2121-3).  The  little  plat- 
form beyond  the  tree  may  once  have  held  the  tabernacle  where  Eli  and 
Samuel  ministered  (I  Sam.  2,  3).  The  tree  is  held  sacred  by  the  natives, 
as  evidenced  by  the  rags  that  deck  it.  In  ancient  days  such  trees  were 
supposed  to  be  the  residence  of  Baals  (Sec.  39) ;  now  they  are  sacred  to 
some  saint.  The  ruins  of  the  old  town  of  Shiloh  may  be  seen  scattered 
on  the  hill  to  the  right. 

Gath.  The  plague  broke  out  upon  Gath,  and  Gath  sent  on 
the  ark  to  Ekron,  which  was  forthwith  afflicted  with  the  same 
malady.  The  rulers  of  the  Philistines  in  dismay  called  for 
their  diviners,  who  advised  sending  the  ark  of  Jehovah  back 
to  the  Hebrews  with  suitable  apologies,  which  in  this  case 
consisted  of  golden  mice  and  boils — imitations  of  things  asso- 
ciated with  their  plague.  By  a  well-known  rule  of  magic 
the  sending  away  of  these  symbols  was  sure  to  remove  the 


THE  PHILISTINE  DOMINATION  87 

disease  itself.  The  ark  was  accordingly  sent  up  the  nearest 
valley  to  Bethshemesh.  But  the  infection  was  not  yet  out 
of  it,  for  it  smote  the  Hebrews  of  Bethshemesh,  who  curiously 
looked  into  it,  and  they  passed  the  dread  Thing  on  to  the 
Philistine  stronghold  of  Kiriath-jearim,  where  the  mountain 
air  purified  it  and  made  it  harmless.  Here  it  remained  in 
obscurity  until  a  generation  later  David  broke  the  Philistine 
yoke  and  took  it  to  his  capital. 

49.  Samuel  the  Seer.  While  the  ark  was  in  captivity,  a 
youth  was  growing  to  manhood  who  was  destined  to  lead 
Israel  out  of  their  new  bondage.  Samuel  of  Ramah  in 
Ephraim,  born  of  pious  parents  and  early  dedicated  to  the 
priesthood,  began  to  develop  clairvoyant  powers  and  to 
gain  a  reputation  thereby;  so  that  when  the  son  of  a  rich 
farmer  of  Gibeah  lost  a  drove  of  asses,  it  was  natural  for 
him  to  turn  in  to  Ramah  and  risk  a  quarter-shekel  in  con- 
sulting the  seer.  But  Samuel  was  more  than  a  clairvoyant, 
he  was  a  prophet;  that  is,  he  was  one  who  had  insight  as 
well  as  second  sight,  who  saw  meanings  as  well  as  facts,  who 
read  characters  as  well  as  fortunes.  When,  therefore,  he 
saw  this  stalwart  young  farmer,  Saul,  standing  before  him, 
head  and  shoulders  taller  than  himself,  and  felt  in  his  sensi- 
tive soul  the  power  of  Saul's  dormant  personality,  the  seer 
dismissed  the  question  of  the  asses  with  a  wave  of  the 
hand  and  took  the  young  prince  to  his  housetop  that  he 
might  show  him  a  vision  of  his  country's  need  and  of  his 
own  unused  power.  How  the  young  man's  heart  must  have 
burned  within  him  as  Samuel  pointed  out  Gibeah  garrisoned 
by  the  Philistines,  Bethlehem  in  the  grip  of  the  foreigner, 
Shiloh  prostrate,  and  the  ark  of  Jehovah  himself  waiting  to 
be  rescued  from  its  long  exile.  Saul's  spirit  began  to  stir 
under  the  inspired  eloquence  and  the  piercing  eye  of  the 
seer;  so  that  when  the  morning  broke,  and  Samuel  anointed 
him  in  the  name  of  Jehovah  and  sent  him  away,  he  was  in  a 
state  bordering  upon  ecstasy.  Indeed,  when  he  shortly 
met  a  band  of  Jehovah-worshippers,  coming  down  from  the 


88  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

high  place  with  music  and  dancing,   Saul  was  caught  by 
their  religious  and  patriotic  frenzy. 

50.  Saul's  Vigorous  Beginning.  The  plan  which  Samuel 
proposed  to  Saul  was  wise:  possibly  word  was  quietly  passed 
round  that  the  leader  had  been  selected  and  anointed  in  the 
name  of  Jehovah,  but  action  was  to  be  deferred  till  occasion 
offered.  That  occasion  came  from  an  unexpected  quarter. 
Israel's  old  enemy,  the  Ammonites,  made  a  raid  on  Jabesh 
in  Gilead,  and  insolently  demanded  that  its  inhabitants  not 
only  ransom  themselves  but  have  their  right  eyes  gouged 
out  as  a  warning  to  their  kinsmen.  The  men  of  Jabesh, 
having  begged  a  few  days'  delay  to  consider  matters,  sent 
news  of  their  plight  to  their  relatives  on  the  west  of  Jordan. 
Saul  saw  his  opportunity.  By  a  threat  of  vengeance  if  they 
refused,  he  summoned  the  Hebrews  to  follow  him  to  the 
relief  of  Jabesh,  made  a  forced  march  all  that  night,  sur- 
prised the  Ammonites  and  delivered  the  city.  Men  then 
saw  that  Samuel's  choice  was  justified;  here  was  a  leader  of 
power.  With  one  accord  the  elders  assembled  at  Gilgal,  the 
ancient  sanctuary  upon  the  hills  west  of  Shiloh,  and  there 
elected  Saul  their  national  counsellor  and  leader  in  peace 
and  war. 

51.  The  Bold  Strike  for  Freedom.  Saul  now  realized,  as 
the  Philistines  did,  that  the  struggle  for  Hebrew  indepen- 
dence had  begun.  Whether  Saul  would  have  taken  the  offen- 
sive is  a  question,  but  his  valiant  son,  Jonathan,  apparently 
precipitated  the  war  by  slaying  the  Philistine  officer  in 
charge  of  Gibeah.  Both  sides  mustered  to  the  attack. 
Saul  stationed  his  picked  men,  who  had  helped  him  at 
Jabesh,  in  three  divisions,  one  near  Bethel,  one  with  him- 
self at  Michmash,  and  a  third  with  Jonathan  at  Geba.  He 
also  sent  out  a  call  for  reinforcements.  The  Philistines 
scored  the  first  success,  driving  in  the  advance-guard  from 
Bethel  and  causing  Saul  to  evacuate  Michmash.  The  defeat 
was  evidently  severe,  for  Saul's  new  recruits  melted  away; 
some  took  refuge  in  caves  and  thickets,  while  others  crossed 


THE  STRIKE  FOR  FREEDOM 


89 


the  Jordan.  Saul,  with  only  six  hundred  men  left,  thought 
it  best  to  retire  to  Geba,  and  the  Philistines,  certain  that 
they  had  scattered  the  Hebrews,  started  out  in  three  bands 


Fig.    50— GORGE    OF    MICHMASH 

You  are  looking  east  down  the  valley  toward  the  Jordan.  The  Philistine 
fortress  was  on  the  cliff  to  the  left,  the  Hebrews  were  on  the  right.  (Sec. 
51.)  It  was  country  like  this  that  made  the  capture  of  Palestine  so  diffi- 
cult for  General  Allenby. 


to  plunder.     They  left  a  garrison,  however,  at  Michmash, 
just  opposite  Geba. 

Again  the  valiant  Jonathan  showed  the  way  to  victory. 
Secretly,  and  alone  but  for  his  armor-bearer,  he  descended 
the  canyon  in  front  of  Geba,  climbed  the  crag  of  Michmash, 
and,  while  his  foes  were  aghast  with  astonishment,  he  killed 
some  twenty  of  them.  A  providential  earthquake  inspired 
the  Philistines  with  supernatural  dread,  and  a  panic  ensued. 


90  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Saul  was  at  the  moment  consulting  the  oracle  to  see  whether 
he  should  attack;  but  the  commotion  among  the  enemy 
made  an  oracle  unnecessary,  and  he  ordered  a  general  ad- 
vance. The  battle  swept  westward,  while  the  Hebrew 
slackers  came  out  of  their  hiding-places  to  swell  Saul's  vic- 
torious and  pursuing  army.  The  rout  passed  by  the  Beth- 
horon  sin  the  valley  of  Ajalon  and  so  out  upon  the  Philis- 
tine plain.  Saul  had  won  his  title  as  national  leader  and 
the  Hebrews  their  independence  from  the  galling  Philistine 
yoke. 

There  were  still  foes  to  be  faced.  Though  beaten,  the 
Philistines  kept  harrying  the  borders  of  Israel  and  must 
repeatedly  be  repelled.  On  the  east  the  Ammonites,  on  the 
south  the  Moabites,  Edomites,  and  Amalekites,  and  on  the 
north  the  Arameans  stood  ready  on  the  least  pretext  to 
attack  the  young  Hebrew  commonwealth.  Only  in  one 
direction  was  the  ring  of  spears  not  complete:  the  Phoeni- 
cians, bent  on  trade  instead  of  conquest,  paid  strict  atten- 
tion to  their  shipping,  and  thus  established  a  tradition  of 
friendship  that  Saul's  successors  found  very  useful.  Through- 
out his  reign  Saul's  court  was  a  camp  and  his  symbol  of 
power  a  sword. 

52.  Saul's  Break  with  Samuel.  Because  of  confusion  and 
contradiction  in  the  sources,  we  cannot  tell  with  certainty 
what  occasion  led  to  the  break  between  the  two  leading  men 
of  Israel,  but  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact  and  of  its  serious 
consequences.  At  first  Samuel  seemed  to  be  not  only  the 
discoverer  and  inspirer  of  Saul,  but  his  loyal  supporter,  and 
this  means  that  besides  his  personal  backing  he  threw  into 
the  support  of  the  new  state  the  whole  group  of  religious 
zealots  of  which  he  was  leader.  The  band  of  prophets 
whom  Saul  met  near  Gibeah  were  primarily  Jehovah-vota- 
ries, but  from  other  references  to  them  we  know  that  they 
were  intense  patriots  as  well — ardent  advocates  of  democ- 
racy; indeed,  this  crisis  seems  to  be  the  earliest  instance  in 
history  where  religion  and  patriotism  were  consciously  de- 


SAUL'S  BREAK  WITH  SAMUEL  91 

voted  to  creating  a  public  sentiment  and  to  furthering 
national  ideals.  The  Semitic  race  is  particularly  susceptible 
to  leadership  of  this  kind.  Samuel,  Isaiah,  Mohammed,  the 
African  Mahdi,  and  the  new  king  of  the  Hedjaz  are  familiar 
illustrations.  It  was  vital  to  Saul's  success  that  he  maintain 
a  sympathetic  connection  with  this  group;  but  in  some  way 
he  failed.  It  may  be  that  his  too  advanced  ruling  that  all 
wizards,  necromancers  and  mediums  be  banished  from  the  land 
trod  too  closely  upon  the  practices  of  some  of  these  religious 
zealots.  It  may  be  that,  as  one  story  implies,  Saul  was  too 
little  considerate  of  Samuel's  prestige,  and  attempted  him- 
self to  offer  sacrifices  in  Samuel's  stead.  Or  it  may  have 
been  Saul's  occasional  rashness  or  his  growing  melancholia 
that  convinced  Samuel  of  a  fatal  weakness  in  the  new  ruler; 
or  that  Samuel,  as  guardian  of  Israel's  democratic  spirit, 
feared  that  Saul  was  becoming  an  autocrat  rather  than  the 
chief  counsellor  that  his  title  implies. 

The  achievements  of  Saul  and  David  should  not  blind  us 
to  the  debt  Israel  owed  to  Samuel.  Without  his  insight  and 
courage  and  earlier  wisdom,  the  Philistine  yoke  would  prob- 
ably never  have  been  broken.  But  Samuel  saw  in  the  ruler- 
ship  as  exercised  by  Saul  a  danger  to  the  liberties  of  Israel, 
and  he  saw  only  too  truly. 

53.  The  Rise  of  David.  The  Bible  gives  three  accounts 
of  the  way  David  was  introduced  to  public  life.  In  one  of 
these  Samuel  goes,  by  divine  suggestion,  to  the  house  of 
Jesse  in  Bethlehem  and  anoints  the  youthful  David,  the 
youngest  of  his  sons,  to  be  Saul's  successor.  In  the  second 
and  earliest  account,  Saul's  advisers  suggest  that  he  find  a 
harper  to  soothe  him  during  the  paroxysms  of  his  increasing 
mental  trouble,  and  David  is  brought  to  court  on  account 
of  his  skill  in  music.  His  ability  as  a  warrior  soon  wins  for 
him  the  enviable  position  of  royal  armor-bearer.  In  the 
third,  David  goes  to  visit  his  brothers  while  they  are  in 
Saul's  army  fighting  the  Philistines,  and  by  slaying  the 
giant  Goliath  he  becomes  a  popular  hero  whom  Saul  finds  it 


92 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


advisable  to  attach  to  his  retinue.  Whatever  the  manner, 
Saul  and  his  successor  are  brought  into  personal  contact, 
and  the  former  quickly  conceives  a  jealousy  that  goes  beyond 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    51— VALE    OF    ELAH 

The  broad  and  fertile  valley  where  the  Hebrews  and  Philistines  confronted 
each  other  Find  the  brook  where  David  got  his  pebbles  (I  Sam.  1740). 
On  a  contour  map  find  the  location  of  this  valley  with  reference  to  Bethle- 
hem and  Gath.  Why  should  the  Philistines  choose  such  a  valley  for  their 
raid? 


all  bounds  and  finally  drives  away  one  who  ought  to  have 
been,  with  Jonathan,  his  chief  supporter.  The  ground  for 
that  jealousy  undoubtedly  lay  in  David's  wonderful  skill  in 
war,  though  his  skill  as  a  manipulator  of  men  constituted  a 


THE  RISE  OF   DAVID 


93 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  52— ENTRANCE  TO  THE  CAVE  OF  ADULLAM 

The  "cave"  of  I  Sam.  22'  is  probably  a  stronghold  on  a  hill.  Yet  the  hill 
which  most  modern  scholars  believe  to  be  Adullam  has  caves  in  it,  of  which 
this  picture  shows  one.  How  many  entrances  can  you  find  ?  How  good 
a  hiding-place  would  this  be?  The  grotto  of  Saint  Chariton,  near  Bethle- 
hem, identified  by  the  crusaders  as  the  cave  of  Adullam,  contains  seven 
chambers  on  different  levels  which  run  660  feet  into  the  mountain.  South- 
ern Palestine  is  full  of  such  places. 


truer  basis.  The  fact  that  the  crown  prince,  Jonathan,  in 
spite  of  his  father's  insane  dread  of  David,  became  and  con- 
tinued to  be  his  staunch  friend,  argues  great  ability  in  David 
as  well  as  splendid  magnanimity  in  both. 


94  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Saul's  evil  intention  against  David  showed  itself  by  his 
twice  throwing  a  spear  at  him  while  David  was  playing  the 
harp,  by  his  assigning  David  to  dangerous  work  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Philistines,  and  by  ordering  his  servants  to 
assassinate  him.  David's  friend  Jonathan  interceded  for 
him  and  brought  about  an  apparent  reconciliation;  but  soon 
the  old  fires  broke  out,  and  David  fled  from  Saul's  court 
never  to  return.  He  stopped  at  the  sanctuary  of  Nob  on 
his  way  south  and,  giving  the  priests  there  the  impression 
that  he  was  still  in  the  employ  of  Saul,  took  the  sword  of 
Goliath  for  his  personal  use,  and  proceeded  to  his  native 
Judah  to  hide  himself  in  its  wilderness.  His  clan  joined  him 
at  the  cave  of  Adullam,  which  for  a  time  became  the  centre 
of  his  outlaw  life.  We  need  not  follow  in  detail  his  various 
adventures,  his  marriage  to  a  rich  widow  which  gave  him 
added  prestige  with  the  southern  tribes,  or  his  pursuit  by 
Saul  and  the  magnanimous  refusal  of  David  to  rid  himself 
of  his  enemy  by  assassination.  Suffice  it  that  Saul's  perse- 
cution was  so  relentless  that  David  had  to  take  refuge  with 
the  Philistines,  because  they  were  the  bitterest  enemies  of 
his  own  enemy.  Achish,  king  of  Gath,  received  him  kindly, 
glad  of  this  chance  to  anger  Saul  and  to  strengthen  himself. 
David  was  assigned  at  his  own  request  to  a  district  on  the 
southern  border,  where  he  could  keep  the  Amalekites  from 
troubling  Achish  and  could,  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
Philistine  king,  distribute  the  plunder  he  obtained  from 
them  among  his  friends  in  the  cities  of  Judah.  At  the  same 
time  he  kept  up  the  fiction  of  loyalty  to  Achish  by  pretend- 
ing that  his  plunder  came  from  raids  among  the  Hebrews. 
This  position  was  one  that  must  have  been  irksome  to 
David's  loyal  nature.     It  was  bound  not  to  last. 

54.  The  Tragedy  of  Gilboa.  Rumors  of  Saul's  mental 
condition  no  doubt  stirred  the  Philistines  to  a  final  attempt 
to  regain  their  mastery  over  Israel.  Achish  called  upon 
David  to  perform  a  vassal's  duty  and  go  with  him  to  battle 
as  captain  of  his  body-guard.     David  actually  started  north- 


THE  TRAGEDY  OF  GILBOA  95 

ward  with  the  troops,  but  fortunately  the  other  Philistine 
leaders,  out  of  suspicion  of  his  loyalty,  made  Achish  send 
him  back;  and  thus  they  relieved  David  of  a  very  awk- 
ward situation.  The  Philistines  then  moved  northeastward 
through  the  passes  into  Esdraelon,  and  pitched  by  Shunem. 
Saul  massed  his  opposing  troops  on  Mount  Gilboa.  Saul's 
condition  was  indeed  desperate.  His  malady  had  grown 
upon  him,  his  insane  temper  had  cost  him  the  loyalty  of  his 
bravest  warrior,  and  on  the  eve  of  the  battle  many  chiefs 
of  Manasseh  had  deserted  him;  Samuel,  though  dead,  still 
thwarted  him  through  the  religious  group  known  as  the 
sons  of  the  prophets,  and  the  consciousness  of  failure  had 
cut  him  off  from  his  old  happy  sense  of  divine  approval. 
Even  the  oracles,  through  which  the  people  determined  the 
will  of  Jehovah,  were  silent  when  he  consulted  them,  a  pow- 
erful hint  that  the  priests  who  had  charge  of  them  were  no 
longer  his  friends.  To  crown  all,  his  old  enemies  had  come 
to  make  war  on  the  broken  king  and  to  snatch  his  kingdom 
away.  In  his  despair  he  went  by  night  around  the  sentinels 
of  the  Philistines  to  the  wretched  village  of  Endor,  where 
his  friends  assured  him  he  could  find  a  medium.  His  object 
was  to  know  by  supernatural  means  the  issue  of  the  battle. 
Of  her  he  demanded  that  she  call  up  Samuel  the  Seer.  The 
narrative  of  this  scene  is  wonderfully  vivid  and  psychologi- 
cally true  to  the  details  of  the  situation.  The  medium  went 
into  a  trance,  in  which  she  visualized  Samuel  to  herself,  and 
apparently  interpreted  Saul's  desperate  fears  as  a  message 
from  his  dread  enemy:  "Jehovah  will  deliver  Israel  also 
with  you  into  the  hand  of  the  Philistines;  and  to-morrow 
you  and  your  sons  shall  be  with  me!"  So  absolutely  did 
she  harp  Saul's  fears  aright  that  the  king  swooned;  and  the 
kind-hearted  medium,  coming  out  of  her  trance,  pitied  the 
weakness  of  the  man  whom  she  now  knew  to  be  her  king, 
and  begged  him  to  take  a  little  bread.  Thus  revived,  he 
staggered  out  into  the  night,  and  back  to  his  foredoomed 
battle. 


96 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


Had  Saul  not  lost  the  battle  before  he  went  into  it,  he 
might  not  have  been  beaten,  for  his  position  on  Gilboa  was 
well-nigh  impregnable.  But  the  troops,  sharing  the  hope- 
lessness of  their  king,  and  probably  few  in  numbers,  were 


Fig.    53— VALLEY    OF    JEZREEL    AND    MOUNT    GILBOA 

Compare  Fig.  47,  which  shows  a  view  of  the  mountains  farther  to  the  right 
(west).  This  scene  shows  the  broad  mouth  of  the  valley  near  where  it  joins 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  Bethshean,  where  the  Philistines  hung  the 
bodies  of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  is  off  the  picture  to  the  left.  Note  the  rank 
vegetation  and  cf.  Gen.  4914-25  in  which  both  the  quality  of  the  land  and  its 
openness  to  invasion  are  poetically  given. 


soon  thrown  into  a  rout  that  all  the  desperate  valor  of  Saul 
and  Jonathan  could  not  stay.  Steadily  the  Philistine  archers 
drove  them  over  the  crest  and  down  the  swift  descent  of 
Gilboa,  even  to  the  gulf  of  the  Jordan.  Jonathan  and 
his  two  brothers  died  fighting  like  lions,  and  Saul,  badly 
wounded,  fell  upon  his  sword  to  escape  capture.  The  Philis- 
tines next  day  came  upon  Saul's  body  as  they  were  stripping 
the  slain.     They  sent  his  armor  as  a  trophy  to  the  temple  of 


THE   TRAGEDY  OF  GILBOA  97 

Astarte  in  Ashdod,  they  cut  off  his  head  and  fastened  his 
corpse  and  the  bodies  of  his  sons  to  the  walls  of  Bethshean. 
But  the  men  of  Jabesh  Gilead,  remembering  what  this  man 
had  done  for  them  in  the  bright  dawn  of  his  career,  at  the 
peril  of  their  lives  stole  the  corpses  from  their  ignominious 
place  and  reverently  buried  them  under  their  own  village 
tree. 

55.  Saul's  Character.  Saul  deserves  a  higher  place  in 
the  roll  of  Hebrew  heroes  than  the  writers  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment have  assigned  him.  In  the  light  of  succeeding  events 
they  indeed  had  cause  to  reckon  the  kingship  a  failure,  and 
they  allowed  their  judgment  of  condemnation  to  fall  heavily 
on  the  first  member  of  the  succession,  while  they  exalted 
and  glorified  the  prophetic  Samuel,  who  represented  in  their 
eyes  the  ideal  democratic  leader  under  Jehovah.  But  if 
one  reads  all  the  data  impartially,  one  sees  clearly  that  Saul 
was  at  worst  only  the  victim  of  a  mental  disorder  which 
wrecked  his  career  and  made  him  at  times  an  irresponsible 
despot  instead  of  the  chief  counsellor  of  the  elders.  It  could 
not,  however,  wholly  obscure  his  many  and  great  talents. 
It  was  his  courage  that  launched  the  attack  on  Ammon  and 
created  courage  in  the  Hebrews.  It  was  his  skill  as  a  war- 
rior that  kept  the  Philistines  at  bay  for  a  generation,  so  that 
central  Israel  at  least  was  free  from  attack,  and  that  so 
chastized  their  old  oppressors  to  the  east  and  south  that 
later  they  more  easily  fell  a  prey  to  David's  conquering 
sword.  Something  in  his  nature  was  so  compelling  that  in 
his  lifetime,  up  to  the  very  eve  of  the  catastrophe,  no  promi- 
nent Israelite,  except  David,  openly  broke  away  from  him, 
a  fact  most  extraordinary  when  one  considers  the  anarchy 
that  preceded  him,  and  the  inability  of  the  great  David  to 
hold  his  throne  unassailed.  There  are  not  wanting  signs  of 
a  religious  insight  beyond  his  age;  for  his  order  against 
witchcraft  and  kindred  arts,  which  in  that  day  were  univer- 
sally practised,  and  his  own  almost  anxious  devotion  to  the 
oracle  of  Jehovah,  show  that  he  appreciated  the  fact  that 


98  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

disunion  lay  in  the  one  and  the  road  to  his  nation's  highest 
good  lay  in  loyalty  to  the  other.  That  at  times  he  was  rash 
and  that  his  jealousy  of  David  was  sheer  folly  cannot  be 
denied.  Yet  David  was  nearer  right  than  the  biased  chron- 
iclers of  a  later  time  when  he  twined  the  names  of  Saul  and 
his  noble  son  in  one  garland  of  praise: 

"  Saul  and  Jonathan,  the  loved  and  the  lovely, 
As  in  life  so  in  death  they  were  not  divided. 
They  were  swifter  than  eagles,  they  were  stronger  than 

lions. 
How  are  the  mighty  fallen  in  the  midst  of  the  battle !" 


IX 
DAVID  THE  ORGANIZER  OF  THE  HEBREW  STATE 

56.  The  Vassal  Fragments  of  Israel.  At  Ziklag,  his  Phil- 
istine headquarters,  David  received  the  news  of  Saul's  defeat 
and  death.  His  first  acts  were  calculated  to  clear  away  any 
suspicion  that  he  held  a  personal  grudge  against  Saul:  he 
slew  the  messenger  who  claimed  to  have  killed  the  king,  and 
he  composed  a  noble  elegy  which  enshrined  his  truest  feel- 
ings about  Saul  and  Jonathan  and  his  grief  at  the  nation's 
calamity.  Then  in  obedience  to  an  oracle  he  went  with  his 
men  to  Hebron,  chief  city  of  the  Judah  clans,  and  was  there 
anointed  as  their  leader.  It  is  impossible  to  see  how  the 
Philistines  could  have  allowed  this,  unless  as  a  reward  for 
David's  apparent  loyalty  they  let  him  reign  as  a  vassal.  In 
like  manner  they  evidently  gave  their  consent  that  the 
northern  tribes  should  have  a  king  of  their  own  east  of  the 
Jordan,  of  course  in  vassalage  to  themselves.  Abner,  Saul's 
general,  therefore  elevated  to  the  precarious  throne  a  son  of 
Saul  named  Ishbaal,  who  was  not  only  a  vassal  to  the  Philis- 
tines but  a  puppet  in  Abner's  hands.  In  this  double-headed 
Hebrew  state  the  Philistines  saw  the  prospect  of  civil  war, 
and  rejoiced  in  it.  David's  problem  was  now  threefold: 
First,  how  to  win  over  the  northern  tribes;  second,  how  to 
retain  the  loyalty  of  the  powerful  and  jealous  Judah  while 
coquetting  with  its  rivals  to  the  north;  third,  how  to  extri- 
cate himself  from  his  vassalage  to  the  Philistines.  It  took 
him  nearly  eight  years  to  find  a  solution. 

The  Philistine  hopes  were  soon  realized.  Abner  came 
across  from  Gilead  with  what  fighters  he  could  muster,  and 
David's  rough  nephew,  Joab,   undertook  to  champion  the 

99 


100 


THE   HEBREW    COMMONWEALTH 


cause  of  Judah's  king.  Though  a  state  of  civil  war  con- 
tinued for  some  time,  there  is  no  record  of  contests  except 
one   at   Gibeon   and   the   general   struggle   of   personalities. 


Pig.  54— HEBRON 

A  town  of  hoary  antiquity,  containing  before  the  war,  22,000  inhabitants.  Of 
what  are  the  houses  made  and  why  ?  The  large  building  with  the  minarets 
is  the  mosque  over  the  cave  of  Machpelah.  Christians  are  not  admitted. 
Why  is  this  spot  revered  (Gen.  231'--0;  25s-10;  5012-14)  ?  The  pool  of  Hebron 
is  at  the  foot  of  the  slope,  to  the  right  (II  Sam.  412). 


Abner  pushed  to  the  limit  his  mastery  over  his  puppet  king, 
and  then,  breaking  with  him  over  a  personal  matter,  opened 
negotiations  with  David  to  transfer  the  whole  northern 
kingdom  to  him.  Overjoyed  as  David  must  have  been,  he 
did  not  lose  his  masterful  grip  on  himself  and  the  situation; 
he  demanded  that  Saul's  daughter,  Michal,  his  first  wife, 
who  had  been  given  by  Saul  to  another  man  when  he  quar- 
relled with  David,  should  be  returned  to  him  before  any 


THE  FRAGMENTS  OF  ISRAEL  101 

other  business  was  discussed.  In  this  way  he  secured  for 
himself,  as  Saul's  son-in-law,  a  certain  title  to  the  leadership 
of  all  Israel.  Abner  made  Ishbaal  issue  the  requisite  order, 
and  Michal  was  restored.  Abner  then  proposed  to  the  elders 
of  the  northern  tribes  that  they  transfer  their  loyalty,  and 
he  came  personally  to  David  at  Hebron  to  report  progress. 
David  feasted  him  and  sent  him  away  enthusiastic,  no  doubt 
having  promised  to  reward  him  generously  for  his  services. 
But  Joab  was  yet  to  be  reckoned  with.  He  was  not  at 
Hebron  at  the  time,  but,  coming  back  shortly  after  Abner 
had  left,  he  heard  of  the  royal  favor  that  had  been  heaped 
upon  his  rival.  Smarting  with  jealousy  and  stirred  with 
the  thought  of  revenge  for  Abner's  killing  of  his  brother  at 
Gibeon,  and  reckless  of  the  disaster  he  might  bring  on 
Davjid,  he  sent  word  for  Abner  to  return  to  Hebron  and  then 
treacherously  slew  him.  Only  by  the  most  skilful  acting 
did  David  avert  calamity.  He  dared  not  put  his  powerful 
captain  to  death,  but  he  pronounced  a  solemn  curse  on  him 
and  his  posterity,  made  him  and  his  brother  Abishai  and  all 
of  their  soldiers  put  on  mourning  and  follow  Abner's  bier, 
while  he  himself  wept  copiously  over  the  grave,  uttered  a 
funeral  dirge,  and  refused  to  eat.  Some  of  this  may  have 
been  acting,  but  the  situation  was  desperate  enough  to  call 
for  something  of  the  sort,  for  Joab  had  wrecked  a  piece  of 
delicate  diplomacy  when  it  was  nearly  completed.  At  any 
rate,  everybody  was  convinced  that  David  had  no  hand  in 
the  murder. 

With  their  strong  man  dead,  the  northern  elders  realized 
that  the  rule  of  Ishbaal  was  destined  to  be  short-lived.  Two 
of  Ishbaal's  captains,  however,  hastened  its  downfall  by 
assassinating  him  and  bringing  his  head  to  David.  They 
hoped  for  reward,  but  instead  lost  their  own  heads,  hands, 
and  feet,  which  were  hanged  up  by  the  pool  in  Hebron  as 
a  warning  that  David  did  not  accept  assistance  of  that 
kind  from  anybody.  The  inevital  le  now  occurred.  All  the 
northern  tribes  sent  a  formal  invitation  to  David  to  be  their 


102  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

chief  counsellor  and  leader.     In  Hebron,  therefore,  he  was 
anointed  a  second  time. 

57.  The  Nature  of  the  Hebrew  Kingship.  It  is  highly 
important  that  we  understand  at  the  outset  the  nature  of 
this  kingship.  We  must  note  that  the  holder  of  it  is  sum- 
moned by  the  voice  of  the  people  through  the  sheiks  of  the 
tribes.  He  receives  his  authority  from  the  people,  and  to 
them  it  returns  with  his  death.  As  the  Hebrew  term  (melek) 
implies,  this  king  is  primarily  the  chief  counsellor  of  the 
people,  in  reality  a  president,  whose  personal  ability  has  led 
to  his  elevation  to  power.  The  office  was  not  hereditary  in 
theory  nor  was  it  always  in  practice,  for  the  people  chose 
for  themselves  the  new  ruler  or  approved  the  choice  made 
by  the  former  king.  While  in  the  southern  state  the  choice 
always  fell  within  the  family  of  David,  the  one  elected  was 
not  necessarily  the  eldest.  It  must  be  further  noted  that 
the  people  retained  the  right  of  veto  over  the  king's  acts. 
This  is  most  strikingly  shown  in  the  case  where  Saul  con- 
demned his  son  Jonathan  to  death  for  breaking  a  foolish 
command  of  his,  but  the  people  refused  to  let  Jonathan  die. 
(1  Sam.  1444"45.)  They  also  contrived  to  bring  the  pressure 
of  public  opinion  to  bear  on  an  erring  king  either  through  a 
spokesman  (Nathan  and  David,  the  wise  woman  of  Tekoa 
and  David,  Elijah  and  Ahab),  or  by  organized  revolt 
(Jeroboam  and  Solomon).  Though  circumstances  or  the 
ability  of  individual  kings  often  overrode  this  popular  check, 
they  never  crushed  out  the  ideal.  At  the  first  opportunity 
it  reasserted  itself,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  later  narrative. 

58.  David  the  Strategist.  David  was  now  thirty  years 
old  and  full  of  ambition  for  the  great  game  of  statecraft. 
The  Philistines  promptly  started  the  game,  for  while  David 
as  vassal  ruler  of  Hebron  might  be  tolerated,  David  as  king 
of  united  Israel  might  not  be.  David  could  do  nothing  but 
retire  to  his  old  stronghold  of  Adullam.  The  Philistines 
broke  through  to  the  very  summit  of  the  range,  to  the  plain 
of   Rephaim  southwest  of  Jerusalem;  but  David  attacked 


DAVID   THE   STRATEGIST 


103 


them  twice,  the  first 
time  capturing  their 
gods  whom  they  had 
brought  into  the  battle, 
and  the  second  time 
driving  them  out  of  the 
southwestern  high- 
lands. 

With  a  statesman's 
insight  David  now  saw 
that  the  possession  of 
a  capital  city  situated 
nearer  the  northern 
tribes  would  be  an  ad- 
vantage. Avoiding  pos- 
sible jealousies  if  he 
should  choose  an  Israel- 
ite city,  he  chose  one 
of  the  unconquered 
cities  still  held  by  the 
Amorites,  the  little  for- 
tress of  Jerusalem,  built 
impregnably  upon  a 
spur  of  limestone  near 
the  watershed.  David 
himself  devised  the 
method  of  capturing  it 
— to  uncover  the  spring 
and    climb    up    to    the 

very  heart  of  the  city  through  the  water  tunnel,  such  as  has 
been  described  in  Section  34.  The  part  of  the  captured 
city  that  had  been  the  Jebusite  fortress  he  renamed 
Davidsburg,  and  promptly  built  there  his  royal  resi- 
dence. Thus  Jerusalem  enters  upon  its  career  of  romance 
and  blood  that  has  made  it  the  most  significant  city  in  the 
world. 


Fig.    55— PLAIN    OP    REPHAIM 

You  are  looking  north.  A  bit  of  Jerusalem 
appears  to  the  right  over  the  tree.  The 
hill  to  the  left  is  part  of  the  watershed  of 
Judea.  This  fertile  field  represents  the 
broad  top  of  the  plateau.  About  a  mile 
to  the  left  the  narrow  Valley  of  Roses 
begins  to  sink  down  toward  the  west, 
carrying  the  railroad  past  Bethshemesh 
and  Gezer  to  the  Philistine  plain  and 
Joppa.  Behind  you,  twenty  miles,  is 
Hebron;  to  the  right,  twenty  miles,  is  the 
Jordan.  What  evidences  of  prosperity 
do  you  find  here? 


104 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


59.  David  the  Conqueror.  David  knew  that  the  peace  he 
coveted  for  his  people  lay  only  in  his  reducing  to  helpless- 
ness their  ring  of  foes.  Saul  had  adopted  the  same  policy 
but  was  able  to  carry  it  out  only  in  part.  David,  through 
the  more  complete  loyalty  he  commanded  and  doubtless  by 


Fig.    56 — ROCK    CUTTINGS    UNDER    THE    JEBUSITE    FORTRESS 

A  cross-section  of  the  hill  Ophel,  running  east  and  west.  The  spring  Gihon 
lies  at  the  foot  of  the  steps.  The  water  flows  to  the  left  through  the  canal 
and  comes  out  on  the  western  side  of  the  hill  at  the  pool  of  Siloam  (see 
plan.  Fig.  98).  The  passage  leading  up  to  the  surface  of  the  rock  is  un- 
doubtedly that  by  which  Joab  and  his  men  gained  entrance  to  the  Jebusite 
fortress  (II  Sam.  57-8).  The  surface  of  the  Kidron  valley  was  once  about 
forty  feet  lower  than  at  present,  having  been  filled  up  with  debris. 


greater  generalship  and  the  aid  of  his  mighty  men,  was  able 
to  accomplish  it.  First  he  carried  war  into  Philistia  and 
took  Gath,  the  head  of  the  Philistine  league  of  cities.  This 
country  henceforth  remained  inoffensive.  Next  he  trampled 
Moab  into  harmlessness  by  capturing  its  whole  army  and 
putting  to  death  two  men  out  of  every  three.  Ammon  next 
received  chastisement.  David  had  sent  a  friendly  embassy 
to  the  new  king  of  Ammon  to  express  sympathy  on  the 
death  of  his  father,  who  had  evidently  favored  David  dur- 
ing  the   war   with   the   old   Ammonite   enemy,    Saul.     The 


DAVID  THE  CONQUEROR  105 

young  king  was  suspicious  of  David's  motives  and  chose  to 
insult  the  ambassadors.  Knowing  that  war  would  follow, 
he  hired  his  Aramean  neighbors  to  the  north  to  join  with 
him  in  crushing  the  young  Hebrew  before  he  had  grown 
too  powerful.  David  drafted  every  available  man  and  sent 
Joab  into  the  enemy's  country  at  once.  Joab  showed  excel- 
lent judgment,  put  the  Aramean  allies  to  rout  and  compelled 
the  Ammonites  to  take  refuge  in  their  capital  city,  Rab- 
bath.  Since  it  was  too  late  in  the  year  to  conduct  a  siege, 
he  retired  to  Jerusalem,  but  the  following  spring  returned 
to  complete  the  conquest.  He  took  the  lower  city,  cut  off 
the  water-supply  from  the  citadel,  and  sent  for  David  to 
share  the  glory  of  the  final  capture.  All  of  the  Ammonites 
were  made  bond-servants  and  were  doubtless  employed 
thereafter  in  David's  building  enterprises. 

The  Arameans  who  had  helped  Amnion  were  next  subdued, 
though  there  is  considerable  doubt  whether  David  ever  ex- 
tended his  sway  as  far  north  as  the  Euphrates,  or  even  took 
Damascus.  Turning  south,  David  broke  the  power  of 
Edom  and  their  Bedouin  neighbors,  the  Amalekites,  and 
thus  completed  the  circle  of  conquest.  He  had  no  desire 
to  conquer  the  peaceful,  commercial  Phoenicians,  for  they 
had  been  consistently  friendly.  Indeed,  now  that  David's 
conquests  had  made  him  rich  and  had  filled  Jerusalem  with 
gold  and  silver  and  brass  and  precious  woods — the  peculiar 
treasures  of  kings — the  cunning  workmen  of  Phoenicia  proved 
indispensable  in  turning  the  loot  into  buildings  and  equip- 
ment for  the  increasingly  ambitious  ruler.  Thus  it  came 
about  that  within  a  few  years  David  had  built  up  a  little 
empire  that  extended  from  the  territory  of  the  Philistines 
and  Phoenicians  on  the  west  to  the  desert  on  the  east, 
and  from  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  on  the  south  to  Damascus 
on  the  north.  Following  the  conquests  came  trade,  and 
with  trade  came  more  wealth  and  a  broader  outlook.  The 
Hebrew  farmers  were  in  a  fair  way  to  become  citizens  of 
the  world. 


106  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

60.  David  the  Organizer.  David  next  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  internal  development  of  his  commonwealth.  He 
had  shown  from  the  beginning  of  his  career  unusual  skill  in 
organization.  While  ruling  at  Hebron  he  had  established 
two  orders  of  knighthood  among  his  soldiers  in  order  to 
inspire  the  utmost  daring  and  loyalty.  The  lowest  rank, 
called  the  "  Order  of  the  Thirty,"  was  bestowed  upon  war- 
riors who  had  shown  conspicuous  bravery  in  presence  of  the 
foe — winners  of  the  "Croix  de  Guerre."  The  chief  of  the 
order  was  Abishai,  Joab's  brother,  who  won  his  spurs  by 
killing  three  hundred  of  the  enemy  with  his  own  spear. 
Next  in  merit  came  Benaiah,  who  slew  a  lion  in  a  pit  in 
time  of  snow,  and  who  with  only  a  staff  attacked  an  Egyp- 
tian eight  and  a  half  feet  high,  wrested  his  spear  out  of  his 
hand  and  slew  him  with  it.  It  was  to  this  order  that  the 
three  "Paladins  of  the  Well"  belonged,  who  broke  through 
the  Philistine  hosts  to  get  David  a  drink  from  the  well  of 
his  boyhood  at  Bethlehem.  Uriah,  the  first  husband  of 
Bathsheba,  was  also  a  member. 

The  other  and  most  exalted  company  was  known  as  the 
"Order  of  the  Three."  The  commander  of  the  order,  a  cer- 
tain Ishbaal,  won  his  distinction  by  killing  with  his  axe 
eight  hundred  Philistines  at  one  time.  The  second  was 
Eleazer,  who  fought  so  long  on  one  occasion  that  his  hand 
refused  to  let  go  his  sword;  the  soldiers  who  followed  in  his 
wake  had  only  to  pick  up  the  spoil.  The  last  member  was 
Shammah,  who  at  Lehi  planted  himself  in  a  field  of  lentils 
while  his  men  were  in  full  flight  and  personally  stopped  the 
advance  of  the  Philistines.  David  had  also  eleven  captains 
from  the  tribe  of  Gad,  of  whom  it  is  said:  "He  who  was 
least  was  equal  to  a  hundred,  and  the  greatest  to  a  thou- 
sand." It  was  this  military  organization  that  was  the 
groundwork  of  his  empire.  With  men  like  these  for  his 
veterans,  David  might  well  command  the  respect  of  his 
foes.  Joab,  though  not  a  member  of  either  order,  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army,  which  consisted  of  the  profes- 


DAVID  THE  ORGANIZER  107 

sional  soldiers  mentioned,  and  the  militia  that  was  called 
out  for  special  occasions.  Beniah,  second  knight  of  the 
Thirty,  was  commander  of  David's  body-guard  of  Philistine 
mercenaries.  David  must  have  formed  a  high  opinion  of 
the  courage  and  loyalty  of  the  Philistines  or  he  would  not 
have  intrusted  his  person  to  them.  The  fact  that  he  used 
mercenaries  at  all  is  clear  indication  that  he  feared  either 
the  tribal  jealousies  of  the  Hebrew  clans  or,  more  likely, 
their  suspicion  that  their  chosen  leader  was  becoming  a 
master. 

61.  David  the  Grand  Monarch.  All  of  this  success  in 
war  and  in  organization  now  began  to  turn  David's  head 
and  caused  him  to  forget  both  his  humble  origin  and  the 
ideals  of  his  people.  Love  of  power  grew  with  the  exercise 
of  power,  and  love  of  display  kept  pace  with  wealth.  David 
began  to  play  the  Grand  Monarch.  In  accordance  with 
ancient  practice,  he  himself  was  chief  justice  and  held  court 
for  the  benefit  of  any  who  wished  his  personal  decision.  He 
was  likewise  chief  priest.  But  he  began  to  add  other  offi- 
cers. He  appointed  one  Jehoshaphat  as  grand  vizier,  or  as 
we  say  in  the  West,  prime  minister,  whose  duties  were  to 
take  charge  of  the  general  mass  of  public  business  and  jog 
the  royal  memory  at  the  right  time.  Sheva  the  scribe  was 
his  private  secretary  and  kept  the  official  records.  Two 
priests,  Zadok  and  Abiathar,  were  put  in  charge  of  the  ark 
of  Jehovah,  and  another  priest,  Ira,  looked  after  the  king's 
private  chapel.  A  significant  officer  is  Adoram,  overseer  of 
the  royal  labor  gangs.  That  such  an  officer  was  needed  is 
proof  that  David  was  beginning  to  strengthen  his  kingdom 
with  works  of  defense,  and  adorn  his  capital  with  works  of 
magnificence,  and  that  his  war  captives  were  largely  used 
for  that  purpose.  In  addition  we  read  of  a  board  of  coun- 
sellors called  "Friends  of  the  King,"  who  ate  at  the  king's 
table 

David's  increasing  ambition  is  also  seen  in  the  growth  of 
his  harem.     While  yet  at  Hebron  he  had  six  wives;  now  that 


10S 


THE   HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH 


he  was  both  king  and  conqueror  he  must  needs  take  others, 
princesses  from  the  tributary  kings  round  about  and  favorite 
ladies  at  home.  His  final  establishment  of  some  twenty  or 
thirty  wives  looks  small  beside  Solomon's  thousand,  as  Sol- 
omon's was  modest  compared  with  that  of  Shah  Jehan  the 


SACRED    ARK 


Amen-hotep  III,  of  Egypt  (1411-1375  b.  c.)  offering  incense  before  the  ark 
of  the  god  Amon-Ra.  Observe  that  the  ark  is  carried  on  the  shoulders 
of  priests,  by  means  of  poles  {cf.  Ex.  2513~15).  The  shrine  is  in  form  of  a 
boat  with  the  symbol  of  the  god,  a  ram's  head,  on  both  prow  and  stern. 
It  was  made  of  cedar  of  Lebanon  overlaid  with  gold  (Ex.  2510"11).  Over- 
shadowing it  is  the  winged  disc  of  the  sun,  while  on  the  side  of  the  ark  is 
a  beetle — another  emblem  of  the  sun — protected  by  the  outstretched  wings 
of  two  little  figures  representing  Righteousness  and  Truth  (cf.  Ex.  2518"20; 
also  Righteousness  and  Justice  are  the  foundation  of  his  throne,  Ps.  97=) . 
On  the  boat  are  miniature  fan-bearers  and  other  symbols.  Amen-hotep 
holds  an  incense-burner  in  his  left  hand,  while  with  his  right  he  drops 
incense  into  the  flame.  Behind  the  ark  the  king  is  again  seen.  Find 
the  king's  names  in  their  cartouches.  Notice  the  king's  scanty  dress, 
the  tail,  the  serpent-crown,  and  the  overshadowing  goddess,  Mut,  as  a 
vulture. 


Mogul.  But  in  all  these  cases  the  harem  was  the  Oriental 
expression  of  wealth  and  dignity.  By  all  these  means,  then, 
David  sought  to  strengthen  his  hold  upon  the  imagination 
and  the  loyalty  of  his  own  people  and  to  consolidate  his 
power  throughout  his  newly  acquired  empire.  They  suc- 
ceeded only  in  part.  The  people  began  to  scent  the  ap- 
proach of  tyranny. 


DAVID  THE   DEVOTEE  109 

62.  David  the  Devotee.  One  event  in  David's  reign 
proved  in  the  light  of  succeeding  history  to  have  the 
most  far-reaching  consequences.  Having  established  him- 
self in  his  new  capital  while  the  Philistine  wars  were  in 
progress,  he  resolved  to  rescue  the  sacred  ark,  which 
since  the  ill-fated  battle  in  Eli's  time  had  been  under 
Philistine  guardianship.  This  involved  a  campaign  in  which 
30,000  men  were  used,  and  it  resulted  in  clearing  the  Phil- 
istines out  of  all  the  mountain  and  hill-country  to  the  west 
of  Jerusalem.  The  ark  was  then  brought  to  the  capital 
with  high  ceremony,  David  himself  leading  the  procession 
with  music  and  dancing.  One  accident  marred  the  joy  of 
the  occasion:  as  the  ark  entered  the  city,  the  oxen  slipped 
on  the  steep  slope;  one  of  the  attendants  tried  to  steady 
the  ark,  but  at  that  moment  fell  dead.  The  death  was  at- 
tributed to  the  anger  of  Jehovah,  the  ceremonies  were  inter- 
rupted, and  the  ark  was  placed  in  the  nearest  house,  belong- 
ing to  Obed-edom,  one  of  David's  Philistine  mercenaries. 
When  Obed-edom  began  to  prosper,  David  was  emboldened 
to  risk  another  attempt,  and  this  time  brought  the  ark 
safely  within  his  royal  home.  David's  desire  was  partly 
selfish  and  partly  political:  he  wanted  to  secure  for  himself 
the  blessings  that  he  felt  sure  would  flow  from  his  personal 
devotion  to  Jehovah,  and  he  saw  that  this  devotion  to  the 
nation's  God  would  greatly  increase  the  loyalty  of  all  Israel 
to  his  dynasty.  Having  the  ark  in  his  possession,  also,  he 
could  carry  it  when  necessary  on  his  campaigns,  as  we  know 
he  did.  David  had  no  intention  of  making  Jerusalem  in 
any  sense  the  one  centre  of  worship.  There  were  countless 
shrines  in  the  land  that  continued  to  be  used  for  three  hun- 
dred years;  the  ark  only  made  peculiarly  dear  to  him  his  own 
religious  establishment.  Nevertheless  we  can  now  see  that 
this  act  was  the  first  of  that  long  series  which  made  Jeru- 
salem the  Holy  City  of  the  Jews,  then  of  the  Christians, 
then  of  the  Moslems,  the  pivot  about  which  so  many  of  the 
wars  and  the  great  movements  of  history  have  turned. 


110  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

David  had  now  reached  the  zenith  of  his  career.  From 
his  youthful  entrance  into  public  life  he  had  carried  himself 
discreetly,  and  his  course  had  been  a  steady  rise  to  a  point 
of  success  and  power  that  no  Hebrew  had  hitherto  attained. 
If  he  could  have  died  at  this  time  he  would  have  been  for- 
tunate indeed. 


X 

DAVID'S  WANING  POPULARITY 

63.  The  Approach  of  Nemesis.  David's  gradual  loss  of 
popularity  seems  to  have  been  due  largely  to  a  combination 
of  forces  that  he  could  not  wholly  control,  yet  there  were 
elements  in  the  case  for  which  he  may  justly  be  blamed. 
During  the  Ammonite  war  he  was  guilty  of  an  act  that  in- 
volved adultery  and  murder,  and  while  in  most  Oriental  des- 
potisms such  acts  would  excite  only  passing  comment,  in 
Israel,  where  the  kingship  was  never  intended  to  be  a  des- 
potism but  rested  squarely  on  popular  approval,  they  pro- 
duced a  strong  feeling  of  condemnation.  His  people  had 
cause  also  to  resent  the  laxness  with  which  he  governed  his 
household;  for  the  outcome  of  it  was  a  generation  of  pas- 
sionate and  self-indulgent  princes  who  disgraced  the  royal 
name  and  brought  civil  war  on  the  kingdom.  Yet  while 
such  things  furnished  the  occasion,  the  real  causes  of  David's 
decline  were  deeper.  They  lay  in  the  mutual  jealousies  and 
feuds  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  which  David  with  all  his  di- 
plomacy had  not  been  able  to  heal,  and  in  the  growing  sus- 
picion that  the  freedom  that  once  was  theirs  was  fast  be- 
coming slavery  under  the  king's  successes  and  organization. 

64.  Absalom's  Waywardness  and  Ambitions.  David's 
first  serious  trouble  centred  round  his  son  Absalom.  This 
prince  was  a  handsome  and  high-strung  youth  who  first 
murdered  his  half-brother  in  revenge  for  the  wronging  of  his 
sister  and  then  fled  from  home  to  escape  punishment. 
After  an  exile  of  two  years  he  was  allowed  to  return,  at  the 
intercession  of  Joab,  but  was  not  allowed  to  see  the  king's 
face  for  two  years  more.  During  this  time  of  half-forgive- 
ness he  conceived  the  ambition  to  take  his  father's  throne. 

Ill 


112  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Such  a  thought  would  have  been  folly  had  he  not  known 
the  strong  undercurrent  of  dissatisfaction  that  was  loosening 
the  people's  loyalty  to  David.     When  at  last  he  was  restored 


l~s 


-fT- 


Fig.    58 — MODEL   OF    THE    TEMPLE    AREA 

This  wooden  model,  constructed  by  Dr.  Conrad  Schick,  of  Jerusalem,  represents 
the  Haram,  or  Temple  area,  as  it  appears  to-day.  Note  on  the  near  end 
of  the  model  the  dark  section  that  represents  the  contour  of  the  hill  Ophel. 
The  sag  to  the  left  is  the  Tyropean  valley.  Off  the  model  to  the  right  lies 
the  Kidron  valley.  The  ridge  of  the  hill  Ophel  ran  north  and  south 
between  these  two  valleys.  Within  the  enclosure  note  two  levels:-  (1)  the 
larger  one  that  runs  next  the  walls,  (2)  the  inner  square  one  on  which  the 
octagonal  building  rests.  In  Solomon's  day  the  area  did  not  extend  north 
of  the  farther  side  of  level  No.  2,  nor  did  it  include  the  left-hand  corner  over 
the  Tyropean.  Solomon's  palace  and  public  halls  lay  along  the  crest 
of  the  hill,  beginning  about  where  the  three  little  openings  are  seen  in  the 
near  wall  of  the  enclosure  and  extending  northward  to  the  near  side  of 
level  No.  2.  Just  under  the  dome  of  the  octagonal  building,  "  the  Dome  of 
the  Rock,"  is  to  be  seen  the  naked  crest  of  the  rocky  hill,  called  Mount 
Moriah.  On  this  bit  of  rock  Solomon's  brazen  altar  of  sacrifice  stood, 
while  his  temple  stood  a  little  to  the  left  (west),  facing  the  altar.  (C/.  Fig. 
148.) 


to  full  favor  by  his  father,  he  began  to  use  the  arts  of  the 
politician,  impressing  the  people  with  the  splendor  of  his 
public  equipage  and  currying  favor  by  personal  attentions. 
Standing  at  the  city  gate  he  made  friends  with  all  who  came 


ABSALOM'S  AMBITIONS  113 

in  from  the  country,  inquired  into  their  cases  if  they  had 
come  to  have  wrongs  righted,  and  by  no  modest  hints  gave 
people  to  understand  that  things  would  be  different  if  there 
were  only  a  younger  ruler  on  the  throne.  In  this  way  he 
"stole  the  hearts  of  the  men  of  Israel." 

65.  Absalom's  Rebellion  and  Death.  At  the  end  of  four 
years  Absalom  considered  that  his  hour  had  struck.  Ask- 
ing royal  permission  to  go  to  Hebron  to  sacrifice  to  Jehovah, 
he  raised  there  his  standard  of  revolt.  Hebron  was  no  doubt 
selected  because  its  people  had  never  forgiven  David  for 
removing  the  capital  from  there  and  because  the  southern 
clans  were  increasingly  jealous  of  the  growing  influence  of 
the  northern  tribes.  Absalom  sent  messengers  everywhere 
to  summon  his  friends  to  his  side.  Leading  men  had  been 
caught  in  the  net  of  intrigue,  including  two  hundred  from 
Jerusalem.  David's  ancient  and  greatly  trusted  counsellor, 
Ahithophel,  was  among  them,  induced  no  doubt  by  the  hope 
of  wiping  out  the  disgrace  (see  page  111)  David  had  brought 
on  his  family  in  the  matter  of  Bathsheba  and  Uriah.  Each 
day  the  cause  of  Absalom  grew  stronger,  so  that  by  the  time 
the  news  of  the  conspiracy  reached  David,  the  latter  had  no 
alternative  but  to  flee. 

It  seems  incredible  that  David  should  have  had  so  few 
supporters  in  this  crisis.  We  read  of  no  move  to  save  him 
on  the  part  of  Jerusalem  itself,  or  of  Judah  his  tribe,  or  of 
Ephraim,  the  strong  tribe  to  the  north  whose  friendship  he 
was  supposed  to  be  cultivating.  This  was  the  answer  a 
free  people  gave  to  David's  autocratic  ambitions.  The  for- 
saken king  had  to  leave  his  capital  accompanied  only  by  a 
handful  of  court  officials  and  by  his  faithful  body-guard  of 
mercenaries.  Zadok  indeed  brought  the  ark  of  Jehovah 
along,  but  David  feared  to  provoke  Jehovah's  anger  by 
seeming  to  force  him  to  take  sides,  and  he  sent  it  back. 
The  flight  to  the  Jordan  was  full  of  dramatic  scenes,  each 
significant  of  the  deeper  current  of  affairs.  In  particular, 
the  curses  that  Shimei  heaped  upon  David  were  the  expres- 


114  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

sion  of  the  hostility  which  his  whole  tribe  of  Benjamin  felt 
for  one  who  had  deprived  that  tribe  of  its  leadership  under 
Saul.  Followed  by  both  blessings  and  cursings,  David  came 
at  last  to  the  Jordan  and  crossed  over  to  the  city  of  Maha- 
naim,  where  he  knew  he  could  count  on  some  degree  of 
loyalty  on  account  of  the  peace  he  had  brought  to  that 
region  by  the  destruction  of  Ammon.  The  governor  whom 
he  had  placed  over  the  Ammonites  did  indeed  send  provi- 
sions for  himself  and  men. 

Absalom  occupied  Jerusalem  without  opposition,  and  took 
over  the  property  of  his  father,  including  the  harem.  He 
then  held  a  council  to  consider  the  next  move.  The  pro- 
posal of  Ahithophel  to  pursue  the  fleeing  king  immediately 
was  defeated  by  the  crafty  arguments  of  Hushai,  a  trusty 
friend  whom  David  had  sent  back  to  Absalom  for  this  very 
purpose.  "  You  know,"  said  the  astute  Hushai,  "  that  your 
father  and  his  men  are  mighty  men,  and  they  are  chafed  in 
their  minds,  as  a  bear  robbed  of  her  whelps  in  the  field;  and 
your  father  is  a  man  of  war."  The  contrast  between  this 
description  and  the  facts  is  ludicrous,  but  the  argument 
went  home.  In  the  delay  that  followed,  David  had  a  chance 
to  get  his  bearings  and  to  rally  some  help.  At  last  Absalom 
took  the  field  in  person  and  advanced  into  the  east-Jordan 
region.  Joab  opposed  him  with  the  loyal  troops.  The  de- 
feat of  the  usurper  was  absolute,  and  Absalom,  contrary  to 
the  king's  orders,  was  killed  by  Joab's  own  hand  while 
caught  in  the  limbs  of  a  great  oak  under  which  he  had  been 
fleeing.  Joab  saw  the  necessity,  as  the  father  did  not,  of 
ridding  the  land  once  for  all  of  this  menace. 

66.  The  King's  Folly.  David's  reception  of  the  news  was 
a  revelation  of  an  old  man's  weakness.  His  one  thought 
was  personal  grief  at  the  loss  of  a  beloved  though  erring  son. 
The  lamentation  reached  such  a  pass  that  Joab  was  forced 
to  tell  David  that  he  would  have  no  supporters  left  on  the 
morrow  if  he  did  not  at  once  show  some  appreciation  of  the 
victory.     David  then  pulled  himself  together  for  the  cere- 


THE  KING'S  FOLLY 


115 


mony  of  thanking  the 
soldiers.  He  next  pro- 
claimed a  general  par- 
don to  all  who  had 
taken  part  in  the  re- 
bellion; but  the  tribe 
of  Judah  was  slow  to 
accept  the  reconcilia- 
tion. Not  until  David 
secretly  sent  special 
messengers  among 
them  and  even  offered 
Joab's  post  of  com- 
mander of  the  army 
to  Amasa,  who  had 
just  led  the  rebel  host, 
did  their  elders  come 
to  meet  the  returning 
king  at  the  Jordan  and 
renew  their  oath.  But 
David's  favoritism  to 
Judah,  who  had  fur- 
nished most  of  Absa- 
lom's supporters,  so 
exasperated  the  north- 
ern tribes  that  before 
David  had  reached 
Jerusalem  they  broke 
out  in  a  second  revolt 
under  a  certain  Sheba. 
David  ordered  the 
new  general  to  get 
the  warriors  of  Judah 
together  to  put  down 
the  rebels.  Amasa's 
by  Joab  as  disloyalty 


Fig.    59— TOMB    OF    ABSALOM    AND 
MOUNT    OF    OLIVES 

You  are  standing  on  the  southeast  angle  of 
the  temple  wall  (Fig.  58)  and  are  looking 
east  What  is  this  valley  called?  How 
far  below  you  is  the  bottom  ?  The  square 
building  with  the  conical  roof  is  the  so- 
called  Absalom  s  Tomb.  It  dates  from 
the  Graeco-Roman  period.  However, 
Absalom  was  buried  not  far  from  here. 
(II  Sam.  18".) 

The  road  between  high  walls  running  across 
the  centre  of  the  picture  takes  one  to 
Jericho.  The  steeper  paths  above  take 
one  to  the  summit  and  on  to  Bethany. 
The  countless  white  stones  that  dot  the 
ground  are  Jewish  graves  According  to 
Jewish  tradition  the  judgment  is  to  take 
place  here.  These  forehanded  ones  have 
secured  front  seats ! 


slowness,    however,   was    interpreted 
,  so  that  on  their  first  meeting  Joab 


116  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

killed  Amasa  and  recommissioned  himself  commander  in 
his  stead.  That  David  did  nothing  about  this  murder  and 
insult  to  his  authority  is  proof  that  he  was  as  putty  in  the 
hand  of  his  dauntless  but  unscrupulous  nephew.  Joab  pur- 
sued Sheba  and  his  diminishing  band  till  he  caught  him  in  a 
town  in  the  extreme  north.  To  save  themselves  from  de- 
struction the  inhabitants  killed  Sheba  and  threw  his  head 
over  the  wall  to  Joab.  The  backbone  of  the  rebellion  was 
now  broken,  but  the  whole  experience  with  Absalom  and 
Sheba  shows  that  David  had  lost  his  grip. 

67.  The  Famine  and  the  Plague.  Two  further  incidents 
in  David's  reign  throw  light  upon  David's  character  and 
upon  current  ideas  about  religion.  The  first  was  a  three 
years'  famine  caused  by  a  drought.  David  consulted  the 
oracle  to  find  why  Jehovah  was  wroth,  and  the  answer  came 
that  it  was  because  of  Saul's  bloody  house:  the  Israelites 
had  taken  no  revenge  for  Saul's  endeavor  to  kill  the  Gibeon- 
ites,  contrary  to  the  ancient  treaty  (Joshua  915).  David 
accordingly  took  seven  of  Saul's  descendants  and  allowed 
the  Gibeonites  to  impale  them  as  a  sacrifice  on  their  high- 
place.  With  this  gory  sacrifice  the  Hebrews  believed  that 
Jehovah  was  appeased,  for  the  October  rains  fell  as  usual. 

The  second  was  a  plague  that  took  off  70,000  men. 
Plagues  as  well  as  famines  and  other  calamities  were  always 
supposed  to  be  sent  by  Jehovah  in  punishment  for  some 
insult  or  slight.  In  this  case  the  cause  was  thought  to  be  a 
census  that  David  had  just  taken,  though  according  to  the 
writer  of  II  Samuel  Jehovah's  anger  was  kindled  against 
Israel  for  some  unknown  reason  and  he  stirred  up  David  to 
take  the  census  so  that  he  might  have  an  excuse  for  sending 
a  plague.  These  incidents  show  how  undeveloped  and  crude 
the  religious  ideas  of  the  time  still  were.  A  few  centuries 
later  such  ideas  about  Jehovah  had  been  outgrown  (see  Sec. 
115).  The  story  states  that  when  David  discovered  his  er- 
ror in  having  ordered  the  census,  Jehovah  gave  him  a  choice 
of  three  forms  of  punishment,  and  he  chose  the  plague.     As 


THE  FAMINE  AND  PLAGUE  117 

his  angel  was  about  to  smite  Jerusalem,  Jehovah  repented 
of  the  destruction  and  stayed  the  plague.  David  saw  in  a 
vision  the  destroying  angel  as  he  paused  over  the  threshing- 
floor  of  Araunah  the  Jebusite,  and  in  gratitude  he  bought 
the  floor  and  offered  there  a  sacrifice.  It  was  this  spot  in 
Jerusalem  that  became  the  site  of  Solomon's  temple,  and  is 
revered  in  our  own  day  as  a  most  sacred  shrine  by  three 
great  religions:  Jewish,  Christian,  and  Moslem. 

68.  The  Intrigues  for  the  Succession.  As  David  ad- 
vanced in  years  he  withdrew  more  and  more  within  the  seclu- 
sion of  his  harem,  until  at  last  his  weakness  made  him  unfit 
to  reign.  Then  arose  the  important  question  of  a  successor. 
In  Israel  there  was  as  yet  no  well-defined  rule  in  such  mat- 
ters. However,  in  the  matter  of  property  and  family  rights 
among  the  Hebrews,  the  oldest  son  had  first  claim,  and  at 
the  same  time  it  was  generally  recognized  that  the  dying 
ruler  might  at  least  nominate  his  own  successor.  With  this 
general  haziness  as  to  the  correct  procedure  it  is  not  strange 
that  there  should  have  been  two  contestants  in  the  present 
case:  Adonijah,  the  king's  eldest  surviving  son,  and  Solomon, 
the  ambitious  and  accomplished  son  of  David's  favorite 
wife,  Bathsheba.  The  important  men  of  the  kingdom  had 
been  for  some  time  lining  up  on  either  side,  the  first  clear 
case  of  party  politics  in  Israelite  history.  With  Adonijah 
went  Joab,  the  intrepid  commander-in-chief,  and  Abiathar 
the  priest,  both  of  them  David's  loyal  friends.  With  Solo- 
mon were  Nathan  the  prophet,  who  had  been  for  years 
David's  trusted  adviser,  Zadok  the  priest,  and  Benaiah,  the 
captain  of  the  body-guard.  It  was  an  open  secret  that 
David  favored  Solomon. 

Adonijah  had  been  for  some  time  bidding  for  popular 
favor;  and  now,  thinking  that  the  time  had  come  for  action, 
he  sent  an  invitation  to  his  chief  friends  to  dine  with  him  at 
a  place  called  Serpent's  Rock,  well  below  Jerusalem  in  the 
valley  of  the  Kidron.  The  coup  was  to  consist  of  a  sudden 
anointing,  a  presentation  of  the  new  king  to  the  people  of 


118  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Jerusalem  for  their  approval,  and  then  no  doubt  a  seizure 
of  the  palace.  Wrhile  the  feast  was  in  progress,  a  report  of 
it  came  to  Nathan's  ears.  He  and  Bathsheba  brought  the 
news  to  the  helpless  king,  reminded  him  of  his  promise  to 
name  Solomon  his  successor,  and  roused  him  to  act  before 
it  was  too  late.  David  ordered  his  own  mule  to  be  brought. 
They  set  Solomon  on  it,  took  him  down  to  the  spring  Gihon 
just  under  the  eastern  wall  of  David's  city,  and  there  Zadok 
and  Nathan  anointed  him  in  the  presence  of  all  the  people. 
The  trumpets  were  blown,  the  people  shouted  "God  save 
King  Solomon,"  and  the  faithful  six  hundred  of  the  body- 
guard became  at  once  the  invincible  power  behind  the  viva 
voce  vote.  Adonijah  heard  the  shouting  and  knew  at  once 
that  his  cause  was  lost.  He  fled  to  the  sanctuary  and  clung 
to  the  horns  of  the  altar  until  the  new  king  promised  him  his 
life;  the  other  guests  scattered  to  cover,  each  in  his  own 
way. 

David  now  gave  Solomon  his  parting  commands,  chiefly 
directions  about  avenging  him  of  his  enemies  and  rewarding 
his  friends;  then  after  charging  him  to  be  faithful  to  Jeho- 
vah, he  "slept  with  his  fathers." 

69.  Summary  of  David's  Character  and  Reign.  The  per- 
sonality of  David  made  a  profound  impression  upon  the 
men  of  his  own  and  later  times.  At  the  root  of  this  admira- 
tion undoubtedly  lay  David's  personal  charm  and  his  capac- 
ity for  friendship.  Throughout  his  earlier  career  we  see 
him  playing  a  difficult  role  with  marked  success,  because  he 
knew  how  to  make  himself  personally  acceptable  to  such 
widely  different  characters  as  Samuel,  Achish,  Jonathan, 
and  Joab.  For  the  most  part  his  personal  friends  stuck  to 
him  to  the  last:  Nathan  served  him  for  years  and  became 
the  support  of  his  old  age;  Abiathar,  Zadok,  and  Hushai  grew 
old  with  him,  and  Joab's  loyalty — his  one  redeeming  trait — 
survived  even  the  king's  curses  and  the  loss  of  his  office. 
David  must  have  been  also  a  man  of  extraordinary  strength, 


DAVID'S  CHARACTER  AND  REIGN  119 

courage,  and  skill  in  arms  to  command  the  unswerving  obe- 
dience of  his  "mighty  men." 

We  know  too  that  David  was  generous  to  friends  and 
magnanimous  to  enemies.  All  this  is  a  just  basis  of  success. 
With  maturity  came  the  developed  capacity  for  organization, 
for  skilful  planning  and  the  choice  of  efficient  means  and 
men.  Because  of  this  power  he  held  unwilling  vassal  states 
in  unwavering  subjection,  and  moderated  for  a  time  the 
feuds  and  rivalries  of  his  Hebrew  subjects.  But  when  with 
advancing  years  the  charm  and  strength  of  youth  disap- 
peared, and  when  increasing  seclusion  within  his  palace  cut 
him  off  from  the  opportunity  of  impressing  himself  person- 
ally on  the  new  generation,  he  lost  his  hold  upon  his  people's 
loyalty. 

David  had  also  a  strongly  religious  nature.  Late  biblical 
writers  may  have  exaggerated  the  work  he  did  in  developing  a 
ritual  of  worship;  but  throughout  even  the  older  sources  one 
reads  of  his  constant  devotion  to  Jehovah.  His  respect  for 
Saul  wras  based  on  the  thought  that  Jehovah  had  anointed 
him.  No  public  or  private  act  of  importance  was  under- 
taken without  consulting  the  divine  will.  As  soon  as  it  was 
physically  possible  he  rescued  the  ark  from  its  exile  and 
provided  for  it  a  special  sanctuary.  He  enrolled  among  his 
advisers  both  the  prophets  Nathan  and  Gad  and  the  priests 
Abiathar  and  Zadok,  and  he  consecrated  his  sons  to  be 
priests,  all  in  the  endeavor  to  keep  continually  and  perfectly 
in  touch  with  Jehovah's  will.  Even  in  the  days  of  his  might 
he  carried  the  ark  into  battle,  and  his  refusal  to  take  it  with 
him  when  he  fled  from  Absalom,  as  well  as  his  attitude  of 
pious  resignation  during  that  painful  experience,  shows  even 
more  clearly  his  reverence  for  Jehovah  and  the  intimacy  of 
his  trust  in  him.  It  is  quite  evident,  however,  that  David's 
religious  ideas  were  of  a  primitive  type:  his  god  was  a  being 
who  might  break  out  with  disaster  on  the  slightest  provoca- 
tion, and  who  had  to  be  appeased  by  sacrifices,  even  human 


120  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

ones.  In  these  matters  David  was  a  man  of  his  time.  Our 
admiration  is  aroused  only  by  the  depth  and  strength  of  his 
devotion,  not  by  his  intellectual  conceptions  of  what  God 
is  like. 

David  had  one  accomplishment  that  has  endeared  him  to 
all  time:  he  was  a  poet  and  musician.  His  harp  first  brought 
him  to  the  notice  of  Saul;  his  deepest  emotions  took  naturally 
the  form  of  poetry,  and  the  inspiration  he  gave  to  the  lyric 
side  of  worship  so  impressed  the  imagination  of  later  ages 
that  they  ascribed  to  him  nearly  all  of  the  psalms  in  their 
Psalter.  Only  a  few  poems  in  our  Bible  are  certainly  his, 
like  the  "Dirge  over  Saul  and  Jonathan"  (II  Sam.  I19"27), 
the  "Lament  over  Abner"  (II  Sam.  333"34),  and  possibly  the 
"Last  Words  of  David"  (II  Sam.  23'-7);  but  most  of  the 
psalms  breathe  the  spirit  of  joyous  confidence  in  Jehovah 
that  was  David's  religion.  He  at  least  was  the  inspiration 
of  many  of  their  authors. 

There  is  a  darker  side  to  David's  character.  Like  most 
Orientals,  he  was  at  times  cruel,  vindictive,  and  sensual. 
His  laxity  with  his  own  children  brought  upon  his  declining 
years  the  great  tragedies  of  his  career,  and  his  example  as 
Grand  Monarch  clearly  pointed  the  way  to  his  son  Solomon's 
fatal  policy.  Yet  these  defects  were  in  part  balanced  by 
the  greatness  of  his  virtues,  so  that  in  the  large  one  may  say 
with  Professor  Cornill:  "He  is  the  most  luminous  figure  and 
the  most  gifted  personage  in  Israelitish  history,  surpassed  in 
ethical  greatness  and  general  historical  importance  only  by 
Moses." 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  overestimate  what  David  did  for 
the  Hebrews.  He  found  them  disorganized,  discouraged, 
only  slightly  conscious  of  their  unity  of  blood  and  their 
common  destiny,  holding  on  to  a  precarious  existence  in 
the  midst  of  determined  foes.  He  left  them  a  nation,  united 
as  they  were  destined  never  to  be  again,  their  loyalty  cen- 
tred about  a  dynasty  and  capital  city,  conscious  of  a  physi- 
cal and  moral  superiority  over  their  neighbors,  the  dominant 


DAVID'S  CHARACTER  AND  REIGN  121 

race  of  that  century  in  southwestern  Asia.  This  is  an  ac- 
complishment worthy  of  the  highest  genius.  We  can  easily 
understand  how  the  affections  of  Israel  should  so  centre 
about  this  figure  that  a  second  David  became  the  dream 
and  hope  of  Israel's  future. 


XI 
SOLOMON  THE  AUTOCRAT 

70.  Solomon's  Sinister  Beginning.  The  outwitted  and 
defeated  Adonijah  might  have  lived  out  his  natural  years  in 
private  but  for  a  sudden  desire  to  marry  the  pretty  Shunam- 
mite  nurse  who  had  been  secured  to  comfort  David's  last 
days.  Knowing  that  there  was  risk  involved  in  asking' 
Solomon  for  a  member  of  the  royal  harem,  he  induced  Bath- 
sheba,  the  queen-mother,  to  petition  her  son  in  his  behalf. 
But  Solomon  saw  in  the  request  a  scheme  on  Adonijah's 
part  to  seize  the  throne,  and  he  suspected  that  the  former 
conspirators,  Joab  and  Abiathar,  were  behind  Adonijah. 
Solomon's  anger  at  once  flamed  out.  He  sent  Benaiah,  his 
captain,  to  put  Adonijah  to  death,  he  banished  Abiathar  to 
his  little  home-town  of  Anathoth,  and  when  Joab  fled  in 
terror  to  Jehovah's  altar  and  refused  to  be  coaxed  away 
from  it,  Solomon  commanded  Benaiah  to  kill  him  even  in 
that  sacred  place.  Solomon  salved  his  conscience — if  he 
had  any — by  stating  that  he  had  thus  executed  a  righteous 
sentence  on  the  murderer  of  his  father's  friends,  Abner  and 
Amasa;  but  in  reality  he  was  glad  of  an  opportunity  to  put 
a  dangerous  enemy  out  of  the  way.  Shimei  also,  who  had 
been  unfaithful  to  David,  was  put  to  death  on  a  flimsy  pre- 
text. These  executions  served  notice  on  the  kingdom  that 
Solomon  would  stand  no  interference.  More  than  that,  they 
mark  the  change  from  a  rule  based  on  popular  approval — as 
David's  was  at  the  beginning — to  the  iron  rule  of  an  auto- 
crat. 

71.  His  Policy  of  Magnificence.  Solomon  came  to  the 
throne  with  the  fixed  intention  of  having  his  own  way.  He 
was  a  young  man  of  extraordinary  and  varied  powers,  and 

122 


SOLOMON'S  POLICY  123 

taking  the  cue  from  his  father's  attempts  at  splendor  and 
from  the  ways  of  other  great  monarchs,  he  set  for  himself 
the  ideal  of  magnificence.  Lacking  his  father's  moral  capac- 
ity and  political  insight,  he  did  not  see  that  a  course  of 
unbridled  selfishness,  such  as  he  proposed,  would  run  counter 
to  the  best  interests  of  his  subjects  and  in  the  end  to  his 
own  interests. 

Outward  splendor  is  based  on  the  possession  of  wealth, 
and  to  get  this  now  became  Solomon's  supreme  ambition. 
To  this  end  the  state,  which  ought  to  serve  the  common 
good,  was  made  an  instrument  for  exacting  and  collecting 
wealth  for  the  ruler.  If  there  was  anything  done  in  Solo- 
mon's reign  to  strengthen  the  people  in  material  or  intellec- 
tual ways,  if  there  was  any  endeavor  to  purify  religion  or 
elevate  morals,  we  do  not  know  of  it.  No  heroic  or  noble 
act  is  recorded  of  any  one  while  Solomon  was  on  the  throne. 

72.  Territorial  Losses  and  Their  Result.  At  the  outset  of 
his  reign  Edom  revolted.  The  leader  was  one  Hadad  who 
had  managed  to  escape  when  David  nearly  exterminated 
the  nation,  had  taken  refuge  in  Egypt,  and  now,  with  a 
king  of  different  temper  ruling  at  Jerusalem,  returned  to 
free  his  country  from  the  oppressor.  Solomon  was  not  a 
warrior;  he  let  Edom  go.  Taking  courage  from  Edom's 
success,  Moab  revolted  likewise.  Next  Rezon  the  Aramean 
tried  his  hand.  He,  too,  had  escaped  the  sword  of  David, 
had  been  an  outlaw-chief  for  a  generation,  and  now  plucked 
up  courage  to  enter  Damascus  and  declare  its  freedom  from 
Israelite  control.  Solomon  was  powerless  to  stop  him. 
Rezon  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  that  Aramean  kingdom 
of  Damascus  that  was  destined  for  two  centuries  to  be 
Israel's  bitterest  foe  and  temporary  master. 

One  can  easily  see  that  a  large  part  of  Solomon's  income 
vanished  with  these  revolts.  To  recoup  himself  he  had 
resort  to  forced  labor  and  oppressive  taxes  at  home.  At 
first  the  blow  fell  upon  the  non-Hebrew  inhabitants  of  Pal- 
estine,  the   Canaanites,   Ammonites,   Jebusites,    Gibeonites, 


124 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


and  the  like  who,  since  the  conquest,  had  been  living  along- 
side their  conquerors.  All  of  them  became  state  slaves,  in 
precisely  the  way  that  two  centuries  previous  to  this  the 
Hebrew  shepherds  of  Goshen  had  been  enslaved  by  Ram- 
ses II.  Next  the  Israelites  themselves  were  forced  to  sup- 
ply 30,000  men  for  the  royal  levies,  in  relays  of  10,000  each. 


Fig.   60— COLLECTION  OP  TAXES 

This  world-old  method  of  collecting  taxes  by  use  of  a  stick  was  employed  not 
only  by  the  Pyramid  builders,  as  here  shown,  but  by  Solomon  and  all  other 
autocrats  down  to  1890,  when  in  Egypt  at  least  it  ceased  to  be  used  by 
government.  Of  the  six  clerks-of-court,  how  many  have  desks  to  write 
on?  What  are  the  writing  materials?  The  three  victims  are  village 
officers  who  have  not  brought  in  the  taxes  due.  The  four  deputies  have 
stout  sticks,  which  will  be  stoutly  applied  if  the  money  is  not  forthcoming. 
The  inscription  reads:   "Seizing  the  town  rulers  for  a  reckoning." 


One  month  they  worked  for  the  king  and  two  months  they 
worked  for  themselves  at  home.  In  addition  Solomon  levied 
a  direct  tax  on  the  people  for  the  support  of  his  palace. 
This  service  and  these  taxes  must  have  been  galling  to  the 
freedom-loving  Israelites  who  were  caught  in  the  toils. 

73.  The  Organization  of  His  System.  Solomon  put  his 
schemes  through  by  his  consummate  organizing  ability.  He 
disregarded  the  old  tribal  divisions  that  had  obtained  hith- 
erto, and  substituted  twelve  administrative  districts,  nine 
west  of  Jordan  and  three  east.  Over  each  he  placed  a  pre- 
fect of  high  rank.  These  men  had  for  their  special  duty  the 
collecting  of  produce  for  the  king's  maintenance,  each  dis- 
trict furnishing  the  supply  for  a  month.  The  amount  they 
collected  daily  is  stated  to  have  been  three  hundred  and  thirty 
bushels  of  fine  flour,  six  hundred  and  sixty  bushels  of  meal, 
ten  fat  oxen,  twenty  oxen  from  the  pasture,  a  hundred  sheep, 


SOLOMON'S  SYSTEM  125 

besides  what  miscellaneous  delicacies  in  the  way  of  gazelles, 
roebucks,  harts,  and  fat  fowl  they  could  pick  up.  There 
was  also  barley  and  straw  for  the  royal  stables.  This  sup- 
ply would  take  care  of  at  least  35,000  persons.  Since  his 
establishment  included  his  standing  army,  officials  and  ser- 
vants of  various  kinds,  this  large  quantity  was  doubtless 
required. 

Some  further  details  about  Solomon's  court  have  come 
down  to  us.  He  had  now  a  high  priest  in  addition  to  the 
regular  priests;  he  kept  his  father's  grand  vizier,  added  a 
private  secretary,  making  two;  established  the  office  of 
superintendent  of  the  palace;  kept  up  the  circle  of  the 
"  king's  friends,"  and  created  for  the  son  of  the  prophet 
Nathan  the  office  of  general  supervisor  of  the  various  de- 
partments. The  office  of  overseer  of  the  labor  gangs  was 
perpetuated,  as  of  course  was  that  of  the  commander  of  the 
army.  The  character  of  the  army,  however,  was  changed 
by  the  introduction  of  chariots  and  horses,  which  hitherto 
had  been  unknown.  His  war  horses  were  said  to  number 
40,000,  his  mounted  knights  12,000,  his  chariots  1,400. 
These  he  kept  at  Jerusalem  and  at  certain  fortified  cities 
that  he  built  or  remodelled  at  strategic  places  as  store-depots 
and  centres  of  authority  from  which  he  could  repel  invasion 
or  put  down  insurrection.  The  introduction  of  chariots 
would  necessitate  vast  outlays  for  the  construction  of  mili- 
tary roads,  since  hitherto  in  the  hill-country  at  least  there 
had  been  only  the  roughest  kind  of  trails.  Thus  the  ex- 
penses grew  by  leaps  and  bounds. 

74.  Solomon's  Building  Enterprises.  To  house  his  grow- 
ing court,  as  well  as  properly  to  symbolize  his  growing  state, 
Solomon  now  decided  to  build  a  palace.  He  chose  for  it  a 
site  to  the  north  of  his  father's  city,  on  the  slope  of  the  hill 
later  called  Mount  Moriah.  The  plans  included  also  a 
temple  for  Jehovah.  The  relative  magnificence  and  extent 
of  the  two  structures  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  took  thir- 
teen years  to  build  the  palace  and  only  seven  and  a  half  to 


126  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

build  the  temple.  Since  no  Israelite  was  capable  of  plan- 
ning and  executing  such  works  as  these,  Solomon  turned  to 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  who,  being  the  head  of  an  industrial 


Fig.    61— A    GROVE    OF    CEDARS 

One  of  the  few  groves  of  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  as  it  was  before  the  war. 
It  lay  6,300  feet  above  the  sea  and  contained  about  400  very  old  trees. 
Notice  the  wall  that  was  erected  to  protect  it.  Formerly  the  trees 
formed  a  huge  forest,  and  were  a  most  valuable  property  of  the  Phoenicians 
who  sold  them  or  were  forced  to  contribute  them  for  centuries  to  the  kings 
of  Asia  and  Egypt.  The  Crusaders  attempted  to  introduce  them  into 
Europe.  One  still  grows  at  Warwick  castle,  England,  after  800  years. 
Practically  all  the  cedars  were  cut  down  in  1914-1919  to  supply  fuel  for 
the  Beirut-Damascus  railway. 

rather  than  an  agricultural  people,  was  glad  enough  to 
undertake  the  contract  both  for  timber  and  talent.  What 
Hiram  furnished  in  both  kinds  was  to  be  paid  for  by  a  yearly 
delivery  to  him  of  220,000  bushels  of  wheat  and  1S0,000 
gallons  of  the  best  olive-oil.     This  general   summary  does 


SOLOMON'S   BUILDING  ENTERPRISES  127 


Fig.    62— PLAN   OF    SOLOMON'S   PALACE 
(According  to  Stade) 


128  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

not  represent  all  the  labor  and  all  the  expense  demanded 
by  these  ambitious  plans,  for  Solomon  was  obliged  to  send 
to  Lebanon  to  cut  timber  the  30,000  Israelites  mentioned 
above,  while  to  quarry  limestone  in  the  hills  around  Jeru- 
salem he  used  his  state  slaves:  70,000  for  burden-bearers — 
human  pack-horses  and  traction-engines — and  80,000  to  cut 
out  and  shape  the  stones.  Over  these  he  placed  3,600  fore- 
men, that  is,  one  driver  to  every  50  men.  Solomon  thus 
reproduced  on  a  smaller  scale  the  ideals  and  the  methods  of 
the  Egyptians.  The  empire  was  his  slave,  and  the  sole 
end  of  its  toil  was  his  pleasure.  No  country  can  long  stand 
such  a  drain. 

75.  The  Palace.  The  royal  residence  consisted  of  five 
buildings.  Lowest  down,  and  therefore  the  first  to  be 
entered  as  one  came  from  the  city,  was  the  House  of  the 
Forest  of  Lebanon,  measuring  about  one  hundred  and  sixty 
by  eighty  by  fifty  feet.  This  was  a  large  hall  named  from 
the  forty-five  huge  trunks  of  cedars  of  Lebanon  that  served 
for  pillars.  It  may  have  been  used  for  assemblies  of  the 
elders,  or  other  court  gatherings,  and  it  served  also  as  an 
armory.  Next  higher  was  the  so-called  Hall  of  Pillars, 
eighty  by  fifty  feet,  a  sort  of  waiting-room  for  those  who 
had  cases  on  trial  before  the  king.  Then  came  the  Throne 
Room,  or  Hall  of  Judgment,  where  Solomon  delivered  doom, 
received  ambassadors,  or  entertained  his  royal  guests  like 
the  queen  of  Sheba.  His  magnificent  throne  was  made  of 
ivory  and  gold,  and  was  surrounded  by  fourteen  lion  guards, 
probably  of  the  same  material.  The  private  apartments  of 
the  palace  followed,  of  sufficient  size  and  splendor  worthily 
to  house  his  seven  hundred  wives  and  three  hundred  concu- 
bines. When  Solomon  had  the  good  fortune  to  secure  an 
Egyptian  princess  for  his  harem,  he  erected  a  special  house 
for  her,  the  uppermost  of  the  series  and  doubtless  the  most 
splendid.  About  this  complex  of  buildings  he  made  a  court- 
yard and  kept  out  the  vulgar  gaze  with  a  wall. 

To  all  this  glory  we  see  a  parallel  in  the  palaces  of  the 


SOLOMON'S  PALACE  129 

Moguls  at  Delhi  and  Agra.  Shah  Jehan  had  his  Hall  of 
Public  Audience  (like  the  House  of  the  Forest  of  Lebanon), 
his  Hall  of  Private  Audience  (Hall  of  Judgment),  and  his 


Fig.    63— A    CEDAR    OF    LEBANON 

Note  the  superb  background  of  snow-clad  mountains.  The  wood  of  these 
trees  is  cream  color  and  resembles  white  pine.  It  was  used  for  interior 
finish,  for  furniture,  and  shrines.  Tall  straight  trunks  were  used  for 
pillars,  as  in  Solomon's  Hall  of  Audience,  and  for  the  timbers  and  masts 
of  Egyptian  and  Phoenician  ships.  The  wood  is  almost  indestructible. 
The  cedar  roof  of  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  lasted  400  years,  and 
that  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Utica  lasted  1,170  years. 


famous  peacock  throne,  the  back  of  which  was  formed  by 
the  spread  tails  of  two  peacocks  composed  of  precious  stones, 
while  between  the  peacocks  there  perched  a  life-sized  parrot 
cut  from  a  single  emerald. 

76.  The  Temple.     The  description  given  in  the  Bible  of 
the  house  of  Jehovah  is  very  elaborate  but  not  altogether 


130 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


clear.  Though  we  know  something  of  its  plan  we  can  only 
conjecture  what  it  looked  like.  It  was  no  doubt  copied 
from  similar  structures  in  Phoenicia  and  Babylonia.     There 


Fig.    64— JAFFA 

The  sand-dunes  that  form  all  the  southwestern  shore  of  Palestine  here  give 
place  to  a  rocky  hill,  on  which  Jaffa  is  built.  Just  off  shore  a  few  yards  you 
may  see  a  row  of  black  ledges.  These  form  an  imperfect  shelter  behind 
which  small  boats  may  lie.  This  is  the  only  harbor  south  of  Mount  Carmel. 
For  this  reason,  the  log  rafts  shipped  at  Sidon  for  Solomon's  temple  were 
towed  in  here  as  the  only  possible  haven,  and  from  this  point  sent  over- 
land to  their  destination.  Steamers  to-day  anchor  half  a  mile  out,  and 
their  cargoes  are  lightered  in.  Landings  are  frequently  impossible  in 
winter. 


was  first  the  sacred  enclosure  protected  by  a  wall,  then  a 
house  with  porch,  antechamber,  and  shrine.  It  was  not 
large,  only  a  hundred  feet  long  by  about  thirty  wide.  About 
the  central  rooms  were  grouped  tiers  of  tiny  chambers, 
doubtless  robing-rooms  for  the  priests,  storage-rooms  for 
the  temple  equipment,  and  safety-deposit  vaults  for  the 
state  and  temple  treasure.      (See  plan.)     The  Bible  writer 


THE  TEMPLE 


131 


lavishes  great  attention  on  the  bronze  work,  which  was 
evidently  a  novelty  in  his  clay.  Possibly  his  imagination 
supplied  some  of  the  elaborate  details.     A  cunning  workman 


SOLOMON  S  TEMPLE 


TEMPLE  OF  EDFU 


Fig.  65 


-SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE  COMPARED  WITH  TEMPLE 
OP   EDFU 


The  idea  underlying  ancient  temples  is  always  the  same:  a  temple  is  the 
palace  or  home  of  the  god,  and  the  priests  are  his  servants.  There  is  first 
the  sacred  enclosure  beyond  which  common  people  must  not  come.  Then 
there  is  the  impressive  approach — a  porch  with  large  pillars,  or  in  Egypt 
a  "hypostyle  hall."  Royalty  and  privileged  people  may  enter  here.  Be- 
yond are  the  antechambers  where  priests  only  are  allowed,  while  in  the 
inmost  recesses  of  the  temple,  in  darkness,  the  deity  resides  in  his  holy  of 
holies.  Ranged  about  the  central  rooms  are  chambers  in  which  to  store 
the  clothing  for  the  god,  the  vestments  and  standards  for  the  festal  pro- 
cessions, and  usually  gifts  or  other  temple  treasure.  In  appearance  Solo- 
mon's temple  may  have  been  Assyrian,  but  in  plan  it  is  more  nearly 
Egyptian,  as  the  above  plans  show. 

named  Hiram  chose  a  clay  bottom  in  the  Jordan  valley  and 
cast  there  the  two  huge  pillars,  Jachin  and  Boaz,  that  stood 
before  the  entrance,  like  the  obelisks  of  Egyptian  temples. 
These  were  thirty  feet  high,  cast  hollow,  and  had  queer  tops 
that  looked  like  pineapples  without  the  leaves,  festooned  with 


132 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


CROSS  SECTION. 


pomegranates.  Undoubtedly  these  pillars  had  a  religious 
significance,  for  they  supported  nothing.  Then  he  cast  a 
huge  sea  or  reservoir,  holding  16,000  gallons.     It  rested  on 

the  backs  of  twelve 
brazen  oxen  that 
faced  the  four  points 
of  the  compass.  This, 
too,  had  some  myth- 
ological meaning. 
He  made  also  ten 
smaller  la  vers  on 
wheels,  and  a  vast 
number  of  tongs,  shov- 
els, and  other  utensils 
foruseinthesacrifices. 
All  the  vessels  for  the 
house  itself  were  of 
gold  and  silver. 

In  erecting   this 
temple,     Solomon 
builded    better    than 
he    knew;    for   the 
priesthood  that  gath- 
ered about  this  royal 
shrine   became  the  chief  support  of  the  dynasty  of  David, 
and   its  prestige  attracted  to  it  the  love  and  the  devotion 
that  enabled  Judah  later  to  survive  the  shock  of  the  exile. 

77.  Solomon's  Ventures  in  High  Finance.  Solomon  found 
it  difficult  to  pay  the  bills  thus  contracted.  Rather  than 
risk  a  revolt  by  further  taxes  and  levies  he  went  into  busi- 
ness. According  to  I  Kings  1029  he  sold  horses  to  the  kings 
of  the  Hittites  and  the  Arameans,  and  doubtless  made  a 
good  profit.  His  chief  venture,  however,  was  in  the  Far 
East.  Since  the  Hebrews  knew  nothing  of  ship  construction 
or  navigation,  he  had  recourse  again  to  Hiram's  men.  The 
Phoenicians  built  for  him  a  fleet  of  "East  Indiamen"  on  the 


Fig.   66  — CROSS   AND   LONGITUDINAL 
SECTIONS  OP  SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE 


SOLOMON'S  FINANCE 


133 


Red  Sea,  and  sailed  it  to  Ophir  (eastern  Arabia  or  western 
India).  The  business  was  called  trading,  but  what  the  ship's 
captain  gave  in  exchange  for  the  goods  he  took  was  probably 
not  much  more  than  a  taste  of  whip-lash.     However,  Solo- 


Fig.    67— PHOENICIAN    GALLEY 

A  two-decked  war-galley  with  two  banks  of  oars  (bireme).  Note  the  long 
sharp  prow  on  or  below  the  water-line,  designed  to  ram  other  ships. 
The  soldiers  have  hung  their  shields  along  the  rail.  Is  this  salt  or  fresh 
water  ? 

mon  got  what  he  wanted,  namely,  gold,  and  that  in  such 
quantity  that  the  bottom  dropped  out  of  the  silver  market 
at  Jerusalem:  a  later  historian  declares  that  silver  had  lit- 
tle value  in  the  days  of  Solomon.  One  can  hardly  believe 
the  report  in  I  Kings  1011  that  Solomon's  annual  receipt  of 
the  yellow  metal  was  $20,000,000 — in  purchasing  power  the 
equivalent  of  8300,000,000!*  Tradition  declares  that  he 
made  a  display  of  part  of  this  by  fashioning  five  hundred 
shields  of  gold  for  his  body-guard  to  use  on  state  occasions, 

*  The  Mogul  emperor  Jehangir  had  an  annual  revenue  of  $250,000,- 
000. 


134 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


and  by  hanging  them  as  ornaments  in  the  House  of  the  For- 
est of  Lebanon. 

Besides  this,   Solomon  levied  tariff  on  all  goods  shipped 
by  caravan  across  his  territory.     With  Egypt  and  Arabia  to 


Fig.    68— EXPEDITION    TO    PUNT 

Upper  register:  Queen  Hatasu's  five  ships  arrive  at  the  land  of  Punt.  Find 
sailors  furling  sail.  Find  the  "bridge."  How  are  the  ships  steered  and 
propelled?  How  does  the  officer  in  charge  go  ashore?  Notice  that  the 
ships  have  curved  bow  and  stern,  the  latter  terminating  in  a  lotus.  How 
are  the  ships  braced  to  stand  rough  weather  ? 

Lower  register :  The  ships  loading  at  Punt.  "What  are  being  carried  on  board  ? 
What  are  already  aboard  ?  How  many  articles  imported  by  Solomon  are 
here  found  ?     See  also  Fig.  69  from  the  same  relief. 


the  south,  and  Phoenicia  and  the  kingdoms  of  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley  to  the  north,  the  trade  must  have  been 
considerable  and  the  revenues  large.  Even  so,  Solomon 
could  not  keep  pace  with  his  outlay,  and  he  fell  back  upon 
borrowing.  The  ever-ready  Hiram  of  Tyre  made  to  him 
various  loans  that  finally  amounted  to  $3,750,000 — or  in 
purchasing   power   about   $50,000,000 — a   figure   that   gives 


SOLOMON'S  FINANCE  135 

Hiram  a  very  fair  financial  rating  !  Hiram  became  a  little 
frightened  at  the  pace  his  extravagant  neighbor  was  setting, 
and  called  the  loans.  Since  Solomon  had  not  the  cash  to 
pay,  he  made  over  to  him  twenty  cities  in  Galilee.  Hiram 
took  the  towns  because  he  knew  he  would  not  see  his  money 
again,  but  when  he  came  down  to  look  them  over,  he  found 
that  he  had  been  cheated  !  Later  generations,  looking  back 
upon  this  magnificence,  imagined  that  Solomon  must  have 
been  the  richest  man  in  the  world;  but  they  forget  that  he 
did  not  pay  his  bills. 

78.  Solomon's  Reputation  for  Wisdom.  The  reputation 
for  wisdom  that  Solomon  has  always  enjoyed  is  not  de- 
served, but  it  has  some  justification.  Solomon  was  no 
doubt  brilliant,  with  the  personal  charm  of  his  father  and 
the  almost  uncanny  fascination  of  his  mother.  He  had  that 
ready  wit,  that  flash  of  insight,  that  knack  of  pointed  and 
apt  speech,  in  which  the  Oriental  especially  delights.  Hosts 
of  stories  in  Hebrew  and  Arabic  regale  us  with  his  shrewd 
judgments,  his  solutions  of  riddles,  his  striking  nature-com- 
parisons. The  Bible  editors  attributed  to  him  nearly  all 
the  anonymous  sayings  that  had  come  down  from  the  wise 
men  of  the  race — two  entire  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  one  of  the  Apocrypha.  In  particular  the  visit  of  the 
queen  of  Sheba  appealed  to  the  story-teller's  imagination. 
Though  coming  from  a  prosperous  commercial  nation  in 
south  Arabia  and  being  herself  a  woman  of  no  mean  accom- 
plishments, she  had  to  confess  that  the  half  of  Solomon's 
wisdom  and  splendor  had  not  been  told  her.  But  granted 
all  that  has  been  claimed  for  him  in  these  superficial  ways, 
the  results  of  his  example  and  his  policy  upon  the  nation 
give  the  lie  to  any  claim  for  true  wisdom — unless  to  bring 
industrial  and  political  ruin  upon  one's  people  while  working 
first,  last,  and  always  for  one's  self  is  wisdom.  Solomon 
was  a  brilliant  fool. 

79.  His  Legacy  of  Idolatry.  The  crowning  evidence  of 
his  essential  folly  is  found  in  his  attitude  toward  religion: 


<f\ 


nf 


130 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


J    \ 


\  exiyjt] 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  69— SCENES    IN    THE    LAND    OF    PUNT 

A  wonderful  relief  on  the  colonnaded  wall  of  Queen  Hatasu's  mortuary  temple 
at  Thebes,  built  about  1450  b.c. — five  hundred  years  before  Solomon. 

Lower  row:  The  soldiers  with  their  commander  have  landed  in  Punt  (Somali- 
land).  "What  armor  do  they  carry?  Find  the  King  of  Punt.  Why  are 
his  arms  raised?  (The  King's  enormously  fat  wife  stood  behind  him). 
How  far  inland  is  this  meeting?     In  front  of  the  Egyptians  is  a  box,  some 


SOLOMON'S  LEGACY 


he  did  not  even  know  enough  to  avoid  shocking  his  people's 
religious  ideals.  Jehovah  was  Israel's  God  and  his  father 
David's  God.  To  be  sure,  since  the  conquest  Jehovah  had 
absorbed  many  of  the  qualities  of  the  Canaanite  Baal,  even 
at  times  his  name;  and  he  was  worshipped  with  many  of  the 
old  rites  that  clung  to  the  Canaanite  high  places.  But  irr^ 
essential  ways  Jehovah  still  bore  a  likeness  to  the  God  of 
Moses,  and  he  still  claimed  first  place  in  the  affections  of 
Israel.  Solomon  openly  placed  by  the  side  of  Jehovah,  even 
in  the  courts  of  his  new  Jehovah  temple,  the  many 
heathen  gods  of  his  foreign  wives,  gods  of  nations  whom  the 
great  David  had  conquered,  gods  who  were  pleased  with 
forms  of  worship  that  outraged  the  moral  sense  of  the  He- 
brew. Solomon  in  his  wisdom  may  have  felt  that  it  was  a 
necessary  state  policy  to  strengthen  his  foreign  alliances  in 
this  way,  but  his  unfaithfulness  to  the  national  God  had  a 
determining  influence  on  the  course  his  people  took  after 
his  death. 

80.  Solomon's  Death.  The  autocratic  monarch  was  able 
to  keep  his  people  under  until  the  very  end.  Only  once  was 
there  an  attempted  insurrection,  but  that  was  quickly  put 
down,  and  Jeroboam,  the  instigator  of  it,  forced  to  flee. 
Solomon  died  peacefully  in  his  palace  at  Jerusalem,  having 


bracelets,  a  dagger,  an  axe,  and  some  strings  of  beads.  What  are  these 
for?  The  inscription  expresses  the  astonishment  of  the  men  of  Punt  at 
the  coming  of  the  Egyptians. 

Second  row:  (left)  A  tent, .in  front  of  which  is  a  large  pile  of  incense,  gold 
rings,  and  other  valuables.  What  are  these  for?  In  the  tent,  according 
to  the  inscription,  the  Egyptian  officers  gave  a  feast  of  "bread,  beer,  wine, 
meat,  fruit,  and  everything  that  is  found  in  Egypt."    Why  was  this  done? 

Third  row :  The  Egyptians  carrying  off  the  incense-trees  in  baskets.  They  are 
to  be  transplanted  in  the  temple  garden  at  Thebes — the  mud-brick  tubs 
for  which  are  still  in  place ! 

Top  row:  (not  clear)  Egyptians  are  climbing  trees  gathering  eggs  in  baskets 
from  the  nests. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  enumeration  of  the  cargo  with  the  list  of 
Solomon's  imports  given  in  I  Kings  10u,  ",  2=: 

"The  loading  of  the  ships  very  heavily  with  marvels  from  the  land  of  Punt: 
all  goodly  fragrant  woods,  heaps  of  myrrh-resin,  with  fresh  myrrh-trees, 
with  ebony  and  pure  ivory,  with  green  gold  of  Amu ,  with  cinnamon-wood 
.  .  .  incense,  eye-cosmetic,  with  apes,  monkeys,  dogs,  with  skins  of  the 
southern  panther,  and  with  natives  and  their  children." 


^7 


138 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


not  even  the  wit  to  see,  as  Louis  XV  of  France  saw,  that 
after  him  would  come  the  deluge.  To  Solomon  belongs  the 
doubtful  honor  of  having  set  the  Hebrew  world  a  standard 
of  regal  magnificence  and  selfishness,  and  by  the  perversion 
of  great  talents  of  having  for  a  time  changed  a  free  people 
into  slaves. 


Fig.  70— THE  PRINCES  OF  LEBANON  FELLING  TREES  FOR 
SETI  I  OF  EGYPT 

Note  the  density  of  the  forest  and  the  slender  straight  trunks.  The  gnarled 
trees  shown  in  Figs.  61  and  63  are  old  and  solitary,  hardly  typical  of  the 
forest  in  its  youth. 


o 


c 


--  xn  I 

THE  REVOLT  AGAINST  AUTOCRACY 

81.  The  Popular  Recoil.  The  tears  that  were  shed  over 
Solomon's  grave  were  insincere.  The  joyful  news  that 
the  tyrant  was  no  more  was  carried  instanter  to  Jeroboam, 
the  exile  rebel  in  Egypt.  Solomon's  son,  Rehoboam,  was 
quick  to  have  himself  proclaimed  king  by  his  faithful  friends 
at  Jerusalem,  and  he  hoped  at  Shechem  to  have  all  Israel 
approve  his  nomination.  But  the  northern  tribes  had  stood 
all  of  Solomon's  methods  they  could  endure.  If  the  young 
Rehoboam  was  willing  to  return  to  the  less  oppressive 
methods  of  David  or  Saul,  they  would  be  content  to  let  him 
become  their  king;  but  if  not,  then  their  loyalty  would 
go  elsewhere.  Before  confirming  his  election  they  demanded 
a  clear  statement  of  policy:  "Will  you  remove  your  father's 
yoke,  or  will  you  not?"  Rehoboam  saw  that  they  were 
determined,  and  he  took  three  days  to  consider. 

His  father's  advisers  realized  the  danger  and  counselled 
moderation.  His  young  friends,  who  saw  the  advantages 
but  not  the  dangers  of  vast  wealth  and  autocratic  power, 
bade  him  assert  his  authority.  In  his  ignorance,  the  latter 
counsel  seemed  good  to  Rehoboam,  and  at  the  end  of  his 
three  days  he  returned  an  autocrat's  and  a  fool's  answer: 
"My  father  chastised  you  with  whips,  but  I  will  chastise 
you  with  scorpions."  Large  words  for  a  sixteen-year-old  ! 
The  Deople's  reply  was  instant  and  decisive: 

"  What  portion  have  we  in  David  ? 
To  your  tents,  O  Israel!" 

Rehoboam    assumed   his  father's   manner  and   ordered  Ad- 
oniram,  the  overseer  of  the  labor  gangs,  to  set  the  people 

139 


140 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


to  work.  The  people  stoned  the  overseer  to  death.  Not 
knowing  what  to  do  next,  Rehoboam  fled.  The  ten  northern 
tribes  then  elected  Jeroboam  head  of  the  northern  state, 


Fig.  71— NABLUS— ANCIENT  SHECHEM 

You  are  facing  east.  What  mountain  is  on  the  right?  On  the  left?  The 
olive  groves  furnish  the  chief  article  of  export  from  this  city — olive-oil  soap. 
Twenty-two  springs  make  the  environs  very  fertile.  The  ancient  city, 
mentioned  so  frequently  in  the  Old  Testament,  lay  a  trifle  to  the  east 
of  the  present  city,  where  the  mountains  come  almost  together.  Omri 
abandoned  the  site  for  one  more  easily  defended — Samaria. 

The  ancient  temple  of  the  Samaritans  built  by  Sanballat  II  (sec.  191)  and  de- 
stroyed by  John  Hyrcanus,  129  b.c.  (sec.  221)  stood  on  the  peak  above 
the  centre  of  the  picture.  In  the  hollow  just  to  the  right,  the  Samaritans 
observe  their  passover  (cf.  Fig.  134). 


which  took  the  name  Israel.     The  fateful  breach  was  con- 
summated. 

82.  Jeroboam's  Training.  The  new  ruler  of  Israel  had 
been  a  protege  of  Solomon.  While  the  latter  was  fortify- 
ing Jerusalem,  his  attention  was  called  to  this  young  man  of 
industry  and  ability,  and  he  advanced  him  to  the  office  of 


JEROBOAM'S  TRAINING  141 

supervisor  of  the  labor  gangs  of  Ephraim.  Soon  after  this 
a  prophet  named  Ahijah  came  across  Jeroboam  and,  seeing 
his  talent,  was  moved  to  sow  in  his  mind  the  seeds  of  ambi- 
tion, even  as  Samuel  had  earlier  done  in  the  mind  of  Saul. 
Meeting  him  alone  as  he  was  returning  from  Jerusalem,  the 
prophet  tore  into  twelve  pieces  a  new  mantle  he  was  wear- 
ing and  gave  Jeroboam  ten  of  them,  saying:  "Thus  says 
Jehovah,  the  God  of  Israel,  Behold  I  will  wrest  the  king- 
dom out  of  the  hand  of  Solomon  and  will  give  ten  tribes  to 
you."  Whether  he  read  in  the  young  officer's  mind  some 
sympathy  with  the  sufferings  of  his  fellow  tribesmen,  or 
whether  he  discovered  there  a  slumbering  ambition,  his 
words,  like  those  of  the  witches  to  Macbeth,  roused  Jero- 
boam to  action.  He  planned  a  revolt.  Unfortunately  the 
time  was  not  ripe,  and  as  stated  in  the  previous  chapter,  he 
fled  to  Egypt.  There  he  was  sympathetically  harbored  by 
King  Shishak.  We  have  no  means  of  knowing  whether  from 
that  safe  distance  he  kept  up  any  agitation  among  the  sheiks 
of  the  north,  but  he  did  not  allow  them  to  forget  him.  To 
him  they  turned  at  once  in  the  great  crisis,  and  thus  fulfilled 
the  daring  forecast  of  the  prophet  of  Shiloh. 

83.  Causes  and  Consequences  of  the  Division.  The 
broad  material  and  political  causes  underlying  the  great 
rift  have  been  already  noted.  Solomon  had  run  counter  to 
the  primitive  instincts  for  freedom  and  democracy  which  his 
people  had  inherited  from  their  desert  ancestors,  and  had 
made  life  bitter  through  forced  labor  and  oppressive  taxes; 
he  had  broken  the  spirit  of  the  contract  that  David  had 
made  with  their  fathers  when  they  consented  to  accept  him 
as  their  ruler  (II  Sam.  53).  He  had  also  shocked  the  strongly 
religious  part  of  the  nation  by  his  idolatries.  That  this  was 
a  fertile  source  of  discontent  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it 
was  a  prophet  who  instigated  the  abortive  first  revolt,  and 
that  one  of  the  first  acts  of  Jeroboam  was  to  make  adequate 
provision  for  his  people's  religion.  But  one  must  go  even 
deeper  and  say  that  Solomon's  oppression  was  merely  an 


142 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


excuse  for  the  reappearance  of  a  deep-seated  and  ancient 
jealousy,  the  jealousy  between  Judah  and  Joseph,  the  south 
and  the  north.     Judah,  in  the  persons  of  David  and  Solo- 


Fig.    72— INSCRIPTION    OF    SHISHAK 

On  the  south  wall  of  Karnak.  It  commemorates  the  victory  of  Shishak  I  over 
Rehoboam  about  926  b.c.  (I  Kings  142528).  The  figure  of  King  Shishak 
smiting  his  foes  was  to  have  been  placed  on  the  blank  stones  to  the  right, 
but  was  never  put  in.  Find  the  kneeling  Asiatics  with  their  hands  raised 
for  mercy.  Standing  to  the  left  is  the  tall  figure  of  the  god  Amon,  with  the 
crown  of  two  feathers.  In  his  right  hand  he  grasps  a  curved  sword ;  in  his 
left  the  ropes  by  which  he  leads  captive  the  conquered  cities  of  Palestine. 
(See  Fig.  73.) 


mon,  had  gained  the  ascendancy  over  his  kinsmen;  this 
ascendancy  was  hateful  to  the  powerful  and  high-spirited 
Joseph  tribes.  What  Sheba's  rebellion  could  not  accom- 
plish, Jeroboam's  did:  the  northern  tribes  became  their  own 
masters.     Judah  held  faithful  to  Rehoboam,  partly  because 


CAUSES  OF  THE  DIVISION  143 

he  was  their  kinsman  while  the  rebel  was  an  Ephraimite, 
and  partly  because  the  priesthood  instituted  by  Solomon 
and  supported  by  his  lavishness  set  itself  strongly  to  sup- 
port his  dynasty. 

In  this  division  Israel  obtained  the  lion's  share.  The  line 
of  cleavage  ran  stright  across  the  central  highland  through 
the  valleys  of  Michmash  to  the  east  and  Ajalon  to  the  west, 
giving  Israel  fully  three  times  the  square  miles  that  Judah 
retained.  In  Israel's  land  were  all  the  fertile  valleys  and 
copious  springs.  There  was  the  larger  population.  There 
ran  the  great  roads,  bringing  trade  and  ideas  from  the  four 
corners  of  the  world;  and  next  to  her  lay  wealthy  and  peace- 
ful Phoenicia.  Judah,  on  the  other  hand,  was  rocky,  dry, 
isolated,  and  exposed  to  the  raids  of  the  Bedouin.  But 
Judah  had  spiritual  assets  that  Israel  lacked.  She  had  the 
great  traditions  of  David  and  Solomon,  the  prestige  of  hav- 
ing ruled;  to  her  belonged  Jerusalem,  now  splendid  and 
well  fortified;  to  her  belonged  the  temple  of  Jehovah  and 
the  royal  palace,  strong  rallying-points  for  Hebrew  pride 
and  loyalty  and  religion. 

Whatever  either  Hebrew  state  may  have  gained,  they 
lost  immeasurably  by  the  division.  Instead  of  one,  there 
were  two;  instead  of  harmony,  discord;  instead  of  a  united 
front  to  the  foe,  intrigue  with  him  by  each  against  the  other. 
The  history  of  both  states  is  a  long  death  agony,  and  they 
both  finally  fell  before  the  resistless  advance  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia. 

84.  Civil  War  and  Invasion.  Rehoboam,  having  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem  and  having  found  that  the  tribe  of 
Judah  would  stand  by  him,  resolved  to  make  war  on  Israel 
and  force  her  to  accept  his  rule.  It  is  stated  in  I  Kings 
1430  that  there  was  war  between  Rehoboam  and  Jeroboam 
continually.  No  incidents  of  this  war  are  recorded.  Five 
years  after  the  division,  Shishak  I  of  Egypt  profited  by  the 
weakness  of  the  warring  kingdoms  to  make  a  raid  into 
Palestine.     Since  the  fact  is  recorded  in  connection  with  the 


144 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


reign  of  Rehoboam,  we  might  think  that  Shishak  spared 
Israel  on  account  of  his  former  friendship  for  Jeroboam. 
But  this  was  not  so.      In  the  large  inscription  that  Shishak 


-CITIES    CAPTURED 


SHISHAK 


Detail  of  Fig.  72.  On  that  picture,  find  the  location  of  these  ovals  behind 
Amon. 

Each  oval  here  stands  for  a  town  in  Palestine,  and  has  its  name  in  hieroglyphics 
carved  upon  it.  Rising  from  each  is  the  body  and  head  of  an  Asiatic,  arms 
tied  behind  the  back  and  rope  round  the  neck.  Originally  there  were  156 
names,  many  of  which  have  been  effaced.  Among  these  are  found  Gath, 
Gibeon,  Beth-horon,  Ajalon,  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  Taanach, 
Shunem,  Beth-shean,  Mahanaim,  Megiddo,  Edrai,  Magdala,  of  the  king- 
dom of  Israel. 


caused  to  be  made  on  the  walls  of  the  temple  of  Karnak  at 
Thebes  are  found  the  names  of  more  than  sixty  Ephraimite 
cities  along  with  more  than  ninety  Judean  towns.  It  may 
be  that  the  tribute  was  exacted  from  Jeroboam  by  diplo- 
macy, whereas  it  was  collected  from  Rehoboam  by  force; 
it  may  also  be  that  Jeroboam,   being  at  first  worsted  by 


CIVIL  WAR  AND  INVASION  145 

Rehoboam  on  account  of  the  latter's  inherited  army  and 
treasure,  hired  Shishak  to  attack  his  enemy.  But  at  all 
events,  the  two  quarrelling  rulers  became  vassals  to  the  am- 
bitious Pharaoh. 

Shishak's  raid  was  a  far  greater  blow  for  Rehoboam  than 
for  his  northern  neighbor,  for  all  of  the  treasure  that  Solomon 
had  managed  to  store  up  in  the  temple,  and  the  five  hundred 
gold  shields  that  adorned  his  armory,  were  carried  off.  This 
must  have  left  Rehoboam  practically  bankrupt.  Jeroboam 
had  no  such  treasure  to  lose.  The  evil  that  Solomon  did  in 
the  matter  of  idolatry  lived  after  him.  His  son  kept  up  the 
foreign  cults  and  even  popularized  them,  until  all  Judah  was 
worshipping  by  means  of  stone  pillars  and  wooden  poles  on 
every  high  hill  and  under  every  green  tree. 

85.  The  Royal  Sanctuaries.  Jeroboam's  main  concern 
seemed  to  be  to  render  his  people  independent  of  Judah  in 
the  matter  of  religion.  Solomon's  temple  must  have  been  a 
source  of  pride  to  the  whole  nation,  and  for  the  northern 
tribes  now  to  be  cut  off  from  visiting  it  was  a  sentimental 
loss  of  vital  import.  To  console  his  people,  and  also  to  give 
them  no  excuse  for  ever  going  to  Jerusalem,  Jeroboam  built 
two  royal  shrines,  one  in  Bethel  on  the  southern  border  and 
on  the  highroad  to  Jerusalem,  the  other  in  the  extreme 
north  at  Dan.  Both  of  these  places  were  sanctuaries  of  im- 
memorial antiquity.  Jehovah  was  represented  here  under 
the  form  of  a  bull  of  gold — the  bull  being  an  ancient  Semitic 
symbol  of  divinity  which  Aaron  was  reputed  to  have  used  and 
which  the  Canaanites  often  employed  for  their  Baals.  He 
also  appointed  priests  for  these  shrines  and  established  a 
calendar  of  feast-days,  duplicating  Judah's.  Jeroboam  had 
no  thought  of  substituting  other  gods  for  Jehovah;  he  merely 
was  trying  to  make  the  worship  of  Jehovah  convenient  for 
his  people. 

This  endeavor  to  solve  the  religious  problem  was  not 
wholly  satisfactory.  There  is  a  late  tradition  that  a  prophet 
from  Judah  took  the  trouble  to  come  up  to  Bethel  and  curse 


146 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


the  place  in  Jeroboam's  presence.  An  earlier  story  goes  to 
show  that  the  prophets  of  Israel  saw  in  Jeroboam's  images  a 
source  of  danger;  for  Ahijah,  who  years  before  had  inspired 
Jeroboam  with  the  thought  of  kingship  and  was  no  doubt 


^m^jmwi^)/^^m'»fmi,<\Atvm*^''<iv-'  -"»■  ..  -t  -   ■  n. 


Fig.    74— "THE    FIELD    OF    ABRAM" 

Geographical  name  in  the  list  of  Shishak  I  at  Karnak,  containing  the  earliest 
occurrence  of  the  name  of  Abram. 


his  right-hand  man  in  establishing  the  kingdom,  turned 
against  him  and  cursed  his  house.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  Jehovah  images  caused  an  increase  of  idolatry,  because 
the  people  soon  forgot  that  they  were  only  symbols;  but 
the  king  hardly  merits  the  wholesale  condemnation  the 
biblical  writers  mete  out  to  him.  It  would  seem  from  the 
scant  data  given  that  Jeroboam  was  a  ruler  of  strength  and 
sagacity,  in  every  way  devoted  to  the  welfare  of  his  sub- 


THE  ROYAL  SANCTUARIES 


147 


Fig.    75— THE    HATHOR    COW 

Jeroboam,  who  "made  Israel  to  sin"  by  erecting  calves  at  Bethel  and  Dan, 
may  have  gotten  the  idea  of  animal- worship  while  he  was  in  Egypt  (I  Kings 
ll40),  where  the  cow,  sacred  to  Hathor,  was  worshipped,  and  the  bull, 
sacred  to  Serapis-Apis.  More  likely,  however,  he  used  the  bull  as  an 
old  Semitic  symbol  of  strength  and  generative  power.  To  his  mind  it 
represented  Jehovah. 

The  statue  above,  found  at  Thebes,  represents  the  goddess  Hathor  coming 
through  the  marshes  of  the  West-land  to  welcome  and  protect  the  soul  of 
the  king.  Find  the  marsh.  Find  two  representations  of  the  king. 
How  is  eternal  life  given  to  the  king?  Comment  on  the  workmanship 
shown. 


jects.  For  over  two  decades  he  was  able  to  maintain  his 
kingdom  intact,  and  the  people  accepted  his  son  as  his  suc- 
cessor. 

86.  Biblical  Estimates  of  Character.     A  caution  ought  to 
be  given  at  this  point  against  accepting  in  general  at  their 


148  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

face  value  the  estimates  passed  upon  the  kings  of  Judah  and 
Israel  by  the  biblical  writers.  These  writers  do  not  pretend 
to  give  us  the  full  history  of  the  period,  but  only  to  ser- 
monize about  certain  events  of  the  period.  They  are  care- 
ful to  mention  the  original  sources  for  the  benefit  of  any 
reader  who  wishes  a  detailed  history:  the  Book  of  the  Acts  of 
Solomon,  the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Judah,  and 
the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Israel.  They  are  in- 
terested chiefly  in  showing  the  state  of  Jehovah-worship  in 
the  two  kingdoms  and  in  proving  from  any  incidents  availa- 
ble that  fidelity  to  Jehovah  always  brings  blessing  and  in- 
fidelity brings  disaster.  In  particular  they  endeavor  to  show 
that  it  was  Jehovah's  purpose  all  along  to  have  his  people 
worship  exclusively  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  avoiding  all 
high  places  and  all  substitute  shrines.  From  this  point  of 
view  only  do  they  judge  both  rulers  and  events.  It  is  not 
strange  therefore  to  find  that  every  king  of  Israel,  good  or 
bad,  is  condemned,  and  the  reason  is  usually  stated:  "He  did 
evil  in  the  sight  of  Jehovah,  and  walked  in  the  way  of  Jero- 
boam, and  in  his  sin  wherewith  he  made  Israel  to  sin."  In 
estimating  the  kings  of  Judah  the  usually  favorable  judgment 
is  modified  in  all  cases  but  two  by  the  sentence:  "  Neverthe- 
less, the  high  places  were  not  taken  away."  The  modern 
historian,  who  is  interested  in  economic  and  political  and 
cultural  history  as  well  as  religious  history,  and  who  has 
other  standards  of  judgment,  usually  reaches  a  different  con- 
clusion about  the  various  rulers  and  reigns 


m  GSE5I  V°  (Ommv 

King  of  the    Kheper-selthet-Ra,    son  of  *    Shashanq  merl  Amen. 
North  and         setep-en-Ra,         the  Sun,  (SAulai.) 

South. 

Fig.    76— NAME    OF    SHISHAK 

In  the  right-hand  oval,  notice  the  two  hieroglyphs  that  consist  of  alternate 
buds  and  blossoms  of  the  lotus.  The  sound  sh,  which  they  represent, 
may  have  been  suggested  by  the  wind  blowing  through  them.  The  letters 
literally  transcribed  are  SH  SH  N  K,  to  which  are  prefixed  the  words 
"  Beloved  of  Amon." 


XIII 
EXPERIMENTS  WITH  MILITARY  DESPOTS 

RULERS    OF    ISRAEL 

Nadab  (912-911),  son  of  Jeroboam.  Murdered  by  Baasha 
during  a  mutiny  in  the  army. 

Baasha  (911-888).  Killed  all  descendants  of  Jeroboam. 
Fought  a  losing  war  with  Asa  and  Benhadad  of  Damas- 
cus. 

Elah  (888-887),  son  of  Baasha.  Murdered  while  drunk  by 
Zimri. 

Zimri  (887.  Reigned  but  seven  days).  Committed  suicide 
while  besieged  by  Omri's  troo 

Omri  (887-876). 

pLXuL.  RULERS    OF    JUDAH 

Abijam  (916-914),  son  of  Rehoboam.     Successful  war  with 

Israel. 
Asa  (914-874),  son  of  Abijam     Ten  years  of  peace  and  pros- 
perity.    Purified  worship. 

87.  Enter  the  Sword  and  Dagger.  The  fifty  unhappy 
years  that  followed  the  division  of  the  state  show  all  too 
clearly  the  results  of  disunion.  Mutual  suspicions,  rivalries, 
wars,  both  civil  and  foreign,  sapped  the  material  resources 
of  both  kingdoms  and  checked  any  political  or  intellectual 
or  moral  growth  that  might  have  occurred  under  a  strong 
government.  Judah  was  more  fortunate  than  Israel.  Asa 
seems  to  have  been  an  able  ruler  whose  long  reign  of  two 
generations  brought  some  peace  to  the  people  and  consider- 
able wealth  to  himself.    Moreover,  he  seriously  tried  to  undo 

149 


150  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

the  danger  to  his  people's  morals  that  the  idolatrous  wor- 
ship of  Solomon  and  Rehoboam  had  caused.  Israel,  on  the 
other  hand,  went  from  bad  to  worse.  In  thirty-seven  years 
she  had  six  kings,  three  of  whom  died  violent  deaths.  Only 
twice  was  father  succeeded  by  son.  These  rulers  were  in 
reality  petty  military  despots  whom  the  people  raised  to 
the  throne  in  the  hope  that  military  force  might  save  them 
from  foes  without  and  anarchy  within.  It  did  neither,  but 
rather  increased  the  difficulty.  In  fact  the  necessity  of 
keeping  so  many  free  Israelites  under  arms  brought  about  a 
change  in  the  centre  of  power.  The  soldiers  rather  than  the 
civilians  became  the  kingmakers.  The  first  case  in  which 
they  exercised  that  power  was  Omri's.  When  the  soldiers 
at  the  Philistine  front  heard  that  King  Elah  the  sot  had 
been  murdered  by  one  of  their  own  number,  Zimri,  a  cap- 
tain of  chariots,  they  refused  to  accept  Zimri's  self-nomina- 
tion and  promptly  elected  their  general  Omri  king.  Omri 
went  in  force  to  capture  his  rival,  but  Zimri,  finding  that 
he  had  no  chance  to  win,  locked  himself  into  the  palace  and 
set  fire  to  it.  This  relieved  Omri  of  the  necessity  of  killing 
him. 

This  election  of  Omri  reflects  still  the  democratic  ideal  of 
the  Hebrew,  but  it  illustrates  also  the  almost  universal 
tendency  of  a  limited  ruling  class  to  usurp  the  rights  that 
belong  to  the  whole  people.  It  is  a  step  on  the  road  to  des- 
potism; it  helps  a  king  to  maintain  a  rule  of  might  instead 
of  a  rule  of  right.  But  it  is  very  significant  of  the  temper 
of  the  Hebrews  that  the  old  order  did  not  pass  without  a 
struggle.  Those  who  still  believed  that  the  sword  should 
be  the  servant,  not  the  master,  promptly  nominated  a  man 
named  Tibni  for  the  throne.  They  were  forced,  however,  to 
defend  their  choice  by  arms,  and  for  four  years  the  waste- 
ful contest  went  on.  The  length  of  the  struggle  shows  how 
determined  both  sides  were;  in  fact,  the  numbers  on  each 
side  were  even.  Tibni  at  last  was  slain,  and  Omri  kept  his 
throne. 


OMRI  THE  SOLDIER-KING 


151 


88.  Omri  the  Soldier-King. 
The  biblical  writers  have  little 
to  say  about  this  able  and  ener- 
getic monarch.  The  Moabite 
Stone,  however,  of  the  ninth 
century  B.C.,  tells  us  that  Omri 
conquered  Moab  and  exacted  a 
yearly  tribute.  In  the  days  of 
his  son  Ahab  this  tribute  con- 
sisted of  the  wool  of  a  hundred 
thousand  lambs  and  a  hundred 
thousand  rams.  Omri  also  oc- 
cupied the  Moabite  cities, 
whether  by  Israelite  colonists  or 
by  garrisons  is  not  stated.  We 
have  also  several  inscriptions 
from  Assyria  that  testify  to 
Omri's  greatness.  The  Assyr- 
ians thought  that  Omri  was  the 
founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
for  they  evidently  had  never 
heard  of  it  until  his  day.  The 
usual  Assyrian  designation  of 
Israel  from  this  time  down  to 
the  time  of  Sargon  (721  B.C.) 
is  "  the  land  of  the  house  of 
Omri."  Even  Jehu,  the  de- 
stroyer of  Omri's  dynasty,  is 
called  by  Shalmaneser  III  the 
"  son  of  Omri."  A  man  of  small 
ability  or  of  mean  accomplish- 
ment could  never  have  made 
such  an  impression  upon  far- 
off  Assyria.  Omri  was  the  found- 
er of  the  one  great  ruling  family 
of  Israel. 


Fig.  77— MOABITE  STONE 

Found  at  Dibon  in  Moab  about 
1868.  While  the  French  and 
Prussian  consuls  were  out- 
bidding one  another  for  its 
possession,  the  Arabs  broke  it 
up  to  make  amulets  for  them- 
selves, supposing  that  such  a 
valuable  stone  must  have 
magic  virtue.  The  pieces 
were  afterward  bought  up  by 
M.  Clermont-Ganneau  and 
fitted  together.  The  stone  is 
now  in  the  Louvre,  Paris. 

The  stone  bears  the  inscription  of 
Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  a  con- 
temporary of  King  Ahab,  and 
is  written  in  one  of  the  most 
ancient  styles  of  Hebrew 
writing — the  characters  be- 
ing in  fact  Phoenician.  It 
was  set  up  about  850  b.c.  to 
commemorate  his  delivery 
from  the  yoke  of  Israel. 
(II  Kings  3«-".) 


152  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

89.  The  New  Capital.  The  single  fact  mentioned  about 
Omri  in  the  Bible  is  his  transfer  of  the  capital  from  Tirzah 
to  Samaria.  With  the  eye  of  a  solaier  he  saw  that  the  hill 
of  Shomer,  the  "watch-tower,"  was  wonderfully  adapted  for 
a  fortress  and  a  royal  city.  It  rose  some  three  hundred  feet 
from  the  plain  and  stood  so  far  from  its  ring  of  mountains 
that  an  enemy  could  not  reach  it  with  any  weapons  of 
assault.  Its  situation  was  beautiful;  and  when  Omri  had 
surrounded  it  with  walls  and  towers,  it  merited  the  descrip- 
tion Isaiah  later  gave  it: 

"  The  proud  coronet  of  the  drunkards  of  Ephraim, 
And  the  flower  of  her  beauteous  adornment, 
Which  crowns  the  fat  valley." 

Omri's  judgment  is  approved  by  the  fact  that  Samaria  was 
taken  by  the  skilled  Assyrian  armies  only  after  a  siege  of 
three  years. 

90.  Omri's  Foreign  Relations.  In  only  one  direction  did 
Omri  meet  with  reverses.  The  Aramean  kingdom  of  Da- 
mascus on  his  northeast  frontier  had  been  rapidly  expanding 
and  at  last  came  into  conflict  with  Israel.  We  have  no 
knowledge  whatever  of  the  details,  only  the  statement  of 
Benhadad  (I  Kings  2034)  that  his  father  had  taken  from 
Ahab's  father  (Omri)  certain  cities,  and  compelled  him  to 
grant  trading  rights  in  the  city  of  Samaria  to  the  Damas- 
cenes. With  an  eye  to  future  need  Omri  looked  around  for 
alliances  and  found  Ethbaal,  king  of  Tyre,  a  willing  friend. 
To  bind  the  treaty,  Ethbaal's  daughter,  Jezebel,  was  married 
to  Omri's  son  Ahab.  The  need  for  a  compact  was  undoubt- 
edly sensed  by  both  of  these  kings;  for  not  only  was  Damascus 
likely  to  be  troublesome,  but  the  great  Assyria,  under 
Ashurnaeirpal,  was  rousing  from  her  sleep  of  a  century,  and  in 
the  year  Omri  died,  876,  her  armies  had  reached  the  Lebanon 
mountains.  Omri,  Ethbaal  and  all  the  neighboring  kings 
made  haste  to  lay  tribute  at  the  Assyrian's  feet  in  order  to 


OMRI'S  FOREIGN  RELATIONS 


153 


Fig.    78— THE    HILL    OF    SAMARIA 

Its  elevation  is  330  feet  above  the  plain,  and  1,542  feet  above  the  sea,  which  is 
visible  23  miles  away  through  a  cleft  in  the  hills.  Discuss  the  fertility  of 
this  region.  What  kind  of  trees  are  these?  The  palaces  of  Omri  and 
Ahab  stood  on  the  western  (left)  part  of  the  hill  (Fig.  84).  Herod  built 
above  their  ruins  his  temple  to  the  divine  Augustus  (sec  235).  His 
street  of  columns  ran  quite  round  the  crest  of  the  hill  just  below  the  tem- 
ple. The  wretched  modern  village  of  Sebastiyeh  occupies  the  eastern  edge 
of  the  ancient  city.  Find  a  mosque.  It  was  once  a  crusaders'  church, 
built  over  the  supposed  tomb  of  John  the  Baptist.  Why  would  a  fortress 
here  to-day  be  less  formidable  than  in  Bible  times? 


avert  a  catastrophe.  This  is  the  first  appearance  of  that 
power  which  was  destined  to  throw  an  ever-deepening 
shadow  over  Israel  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  at  last 
to  blot  her  out  of  existence. 

91.  Ahab's  Reign  (876-854).  Ahab  inherited  his  father's 
ability  and  had  some  of  his  own  besides.  On  the  whole  he 
was  the  ablest  monarch  that  Israel  produced,  far-seeing, 
energetic,  politic,  and  for  the  most  part  just.  The  great 
religious  crisis  which  occurred  in  his  reign  should  not  blind  us 
to  Ahab's  essential  greatness. 


154  THE  HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH 

The  order  of  events  in  his  reign  is  not  at  all  clear.  It 
seems  probable,  however,  that  the  religious  crisis  preceded 
the  wars  with  Damascus,  and  that  during  practically  all  of 
his  reign  Ahab  paid  tribute  to  Benhadad.  This  did  not 
prevent  his  laying  the  foundation  of  a  commercial  empire 
based  on  friendship  rather  than  war.  The  beginning  his 
father  had  made  for  him  with  the  Phoenician  Ethbaal  stood 
him  in  good  stead,  and  now  his  conciliatory  policy  with 
Judah  secured  his  southern  frontier  from  attack  and  gave 
the  proper  peace  basis  for  expansion.  That  trade  was  one 
of  his  objects  cannot  be  doubted  in  view  of  the  treaty  he 
made  with  Benhadad  later.  That  he  was  successful  is 
shown  by  his  ability  to  build  an  ivory  palace  at  Samaria, 
one  in  which  ivory  wTas  the  chief  material  of  decoration.  We 
know  from  the  Moabite  Stone  that  Moab  paid  tribute  dur- 
ing his  whole  reign  and  thus  supplied  him  with  raw  material 
to  sell  to  the  Tyrian  weavers  and  dyers.  Thus  he  devoted 
the  first  eighteen  years  of  his  reign  to  constructive  enter- 
prises. 

92.  Jehoshaphat  of  Judah.  In  Judah  the  able  Asa  was 
followed  by  his  equally  able  son  Jehoshaphat.  Prosperity 
continued.  Some  of  the  Philistine  cities  brought  tribute  of 
silver,  while  Arabian  tribes  sent  tribute  of  flocks.  Eying 
with  suspicion  the  growing  power  of  Ahab,  he  began  to 
strengthen  his  garrison  towns  on  the  northern  border.  But 
Ahab  was  too  wise  to  join  in  a  contest  that  was  bound  to 
exhaust  both  kingdoms,  especially  since  he  needed  all  his 
strength  to  fight  greater  powers  to  the  northward.  He  there- 
fore induced  Jehoshaphat  to  make  an  alliance.  To  seal  the 
pact,  Ahab  gave  his  daughter  Athaliah  in  marriage  to  Je- 
hoshaphat's  son  Jehoram.  This  alliance  proved  to  be  most 
unfortunate  for  Judah:  it  nearly  cost  the  king  his  life,  it 
paved  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  Phoenician  Baal- 
worship  into  Judah,  and  between  the  reformer  Jehu  and 
the  murderous  Athaliah  it  almost  extinguished  the  royal 
family. 


AHAB   AND  HIS  NORTHERN  NEIGHBORS      155 

^  y 

93.  Ahab  and  His  Northern  Neighbors.  War  was  forced 
upon  Ahab.  The  occasion  seems  to  have  been  a  piece  of 
insolence  on  the  part  of  Benhadad.      Not  content  with  his 


Fig.    79— DAMASCUS 

You  are  standing  on  the  slope  of  the  desert  Jebel  Kasyun  and  are  looking  south- 
east over  the  oasis  and  city  of  Damascus  toward  the  Arabian  desert. 
In  the  foreground  are  Mohammedan  graves,  then  come  the  houses  of  a 
suburb,  then  the  gardens  of  fig,  apricot,  and  walnut,  and  finally  the  clus- 
tered white  houses  of  the  city  in  which  the  great  barracks,  the  ancient 
castle,  and  the  mosque  are  conspicuous.  Damascus,  seen  from  this  point, 
has  been  described  as  "a  handful  of  pearls  in  a  goblet  of  emeralds." 
Damascus  is  the  oldest  city  in  the  world  that  is  still  inhabited.  It  exists 
only  because  of  the  rivers  Abana  and  Pharpar  (II  Kings  5l:)  that  flow 
from  the  Lebanons  and  create  this  oasis. 


tribute,  and  coveting  some  of  the  wealth  Ahab  had  been  ac- 
cumulating, he  commanded  Ahab  to  open  up  Samaria  for 
him  to  plunder.  Ahab  refused.  The  result  was  a  defeat  for 
Ahab  and  a  siege  for  Samaria.  But  following  the  advice  of 
an  unnamed  prophet,  Ahab  sent  a  force  of  picked  men  in  a 


156  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

sally  against  the  camp  of  Benhadad  while  the  latter  was 
drinking  himself  drunk,  and  they  put  the  host  into  disgrace- 
ful rout.  Next  spring  Benhadad  repeated  his  assault,  this 
time  on  the  plateau  near  Aphek  in  the  Hauran.  Again  Ahab 
won,  and  forced  his  enemy  to  an  unconditional  surrender  of 
his  army  and  himself.  Ahab  showed  astonishing  leniency. 
When  Benhadad  offered  to  restore  all  the  captured  Israelite 
cities  and  to  give  a  whole  bazaar  in  Damascus  to  the  Israel- 
ite merchants  for  their  free  use,  Ahab  accepted  and  gave 
Benhadad  his  freedom.  People  of  narrower  views  than  Ahab 
possessed  criticised  him  most  severely  for  freeing  his  bit- 
terest foe;  in  fact,  the  bands  of  the  prophetic  dervishes  who 
had  now  risen  to  prominence  sent  one  of  their  number  to 
the  king  to  denounce  his  policy  and  to  curse  him.  But  the 
king  had  a  reason. 

That  reason  was  Assyria.  It  will  be  recalled  that  in  Omri's 
day  Assyria  had  reached  the  horizon  of  Israel  for  the  first 
time.  Ahab  knew  that  the  present  reigning  monarch,  Shal- 
maneser  III,  was  planning  to  repeat  his  father's  raid.  He 
decided  that  a  counter-thrust  by  the  united  kings  of  the 
west  was  the  surest  way  of  parrying  Assyria..  He  and  Ben- 
hadad therefore  undertook  at  once  to  form  a  league.  From 
Shalmaneser's  own  records  we  know  the  result.  They  con- 
fronted him  at  Karkar  on  the  river  Orontes  in  the  year  854 
B.C.  with  an  army  of  13  kings,  1,900  horsemen,  3,940  chari- 
ots, 1,000  camels,  and  71,900  men.  In  this  battle  Ahab  fur- 
nished 2,000  chariots  and  10,000  men.  Shalmaneser  claims 
a  sweeping  victory,  but  he  evidently  felt  that  a  victorious 
retreat  was  less  risky  than  an  advance !  It  took  him  twelve 
years  to  recover  his  courage  for  a  second  attack. 

94.  Ahab's  Death.  Ahab  felt  that  this  was  a  good  time 
to  insist  that  Benhadad  completely  fulfil  his  treaty  of 
Aphek  and  restore  to  him  the  city  of  Ramoth  Gilead  which 
up  to  now,  on  some  pretense  or  other,  he  had  retained.  Ben- 
hadad refused  and  Ahab  went  to  war  immediately. 

In  order  to  make  sure  of  victorv,  Ahab  invited  his  friend 


AHAB'S  DEATH 


157 


Jehoshaphat  to  a  feast  in  Samaria  and  persuaded  him  to  join 
forces  with  him  for  the  siege  of  Ramoth.  Benhadad  met 
the  two  kings  in  force.     In  consequence  of  a  prediction  of 


Fig.    80 — DAMASCUS    FROM    WITHIN 

You  are  standing  on  a  minaret  of  the  Great  Mosque  and  looking  west  toward 
Mount  Hermon.  Notice  on  the  right  the  long,  roofed  street,  called  the  Greek 
bazaar,  in  the  dim  interior  of  which  long  caravans  of  camels  pass  silently 
between  gaudily  decked  shops  and  hurrying  buyers  of  divers  races.  The 
"Street  called  Straight"  (Acts  9lon)  crosses  this  at  right  angles  beyond 
the  two  dark  cypress-trees.  This  was  undoubtedly  the  street  given  to 
Ahab's  merchants,  for  the  Jews  still  live  in  it.  In  the  foreground,  the 
structure  of  many  domes  is  a  khan,  or  warehouse  whither  merchants  and 
caravans  resort.  Important  buildings,  like  this,  are  built  of  stone.  Other 
houses  are  framed  with  poplar  poles,  cut  along  the  banks  of  the  Abana,  the 
spaces  filled  in  with  mud  and  chopped  straw,  and  whitewashed.  All  roofs 
are  of  mud  and  have  to  be  rolled  frequently  to  prevent  leaking. 


death  made  by  one  of  his  prophets,  Ahab  was  a  little  nervous 
and  sought  to  disguise  himself  as  a  private  soldier.  Jehosha- 
phat wore  his  kingly  armor.  It  is  significant  of  Benhadad's 
fear  of  Ahab  that  before  the  battle  he  instructed  his  soldiers 
to  kill  Ahab  if  they  killed  no  one  else.  Seeing  the  royal  arms 
of  Jehoshaphat,  the  Arameans  made  for  him  and  would  have 


158  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

slain  him  but  for  the  timely  discovery  that  he  was  not  the 
king  they  wanted.  But  a  common  soldier,  drawing  his  bow 
at  a  venture,  unfortunately  pierced  the  joints  of  Ahab's 
armor  just  in  time  to  snatch  victory  from  him.  The  brave 
Ahab  fought  on  in  his  chariot  until  night,  though  conscious 
of  a  mortal  wound.  When  he  died  his  army  melted  away, 
and  Jehoshaphat  returned  to  Jerusalem. 

So  perished  a  warrior  and  a  statesman,  but  withal  one 
who  had  not  a  full  realization  of  the  fact  that  a  nation  needs 
pure  religion  and  democracy  as  much  as  it  needs  material 
prosperity. 


XIV 
FIGHTING   THE   PHOENICIAN   PROPAGANDA 

95.  Ahab's  Evil  Genius.  Ahab  would  have  gone  down  to 
history  as  a  king  no  worse,  at  least,  than  many  others  had 
it  not  been  for  his  wife.  As  the  biblical  writers  saw,  she 
was  his  evil  genius.  She  came  by  her  masterful  qualities 
naturally  enough  through  her  father.  He  had  been  a  priest 
of  Baal;  but  finding  little  scope  for  his  talents  in  that  role 
he  assassinated  his  king  and  seized  the  throne  of  Tyre  for 
himself.  Under  the  name  of  Ethbaal  (about  888  B.C.)  he 
ruled  for  thirty  years.  His  daughter  Jezebel  was  no  ordi- 
nary woman,  but  possessed  energy,  intellect,  zeal  for  religion, 
exalted  ideas  about  the  personal  rights  of  kings,  and  in 
general  a  dominating  personality.  She  regarded  intrigue  and 
murder  as  quite  permissible  if  they  brought  the  results 
she  desired.  In  accordance  with  the  customs  of  the  time, 
Ahab  allowed  her  to  bring  to  his  court  the  worship  of  her 
native  god,  Baal  Melkart.  Being  busy  with  what  he  re- 
garded as  more  important  interests — war,  foreign  relations, 
trade,  and  building  enterprises — he  gave  her  free  rein  to  de- 
velop her  Baal  cult  as  she  chose.  She  chose  to  make  it  the 
prevailing  religion  of  the  land,  and  she  nearly  succeeded. 
She  had  temples  built  to  Baal  in  Samaria  and  elsewhere,  she 
increased  the  number  of  his  priests  and  gave  them  the  chief 
place  at  court,  and  she  tried  to  kill  off  the  prophets  of  Je- 
hovah. Everybody  who  wanted  to  enjoy  the  favor  of  the 
powerful  queen  became  a  Baal-worshipper. 

We  must  not  suppose,  however,  that  Ahab  was  a  Baal- 
worshipper  or  that  the  whole  country  had  gone  over  to  the 
Tyrian  god.  Ahab  had  a  band  of  Jehovah  prophets  at  his 
court  to  consult  on  important  matters,  and  even  named  his 

159 


100  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

three  children  after  the  state  god:  Ahaziah,  "Jehovah  is 
strong";  Jehoram,  "Jehovah  is  exalted";  and  Athaliah, 
"Jehovah  is  great."  Jehoshaphat  of  Judah,  who  was  a 
strenuous  worshipper  of  Jehovah, .  never  would  have  con- 
sented to  so  close  an  alliance  with  Ahab  if  he  had  been  a 
heathen.  But  it  looks  as  if  to  keep  peace  in  his  family  he 
had  to  let  Jezebel  do  as  she  pleased  with  her  Baal  cult. 
Her  success  in  destroying  and  in  making  converts  aroused 
Elijah. 

90.  What  Baalism  Meant.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
between  two  kinds  of  Baals.  We  have  already  seen  (sec. 
39)  that  when  the  Hebrews  entered  Canaan  they  found 
the  agricultural  Canaanites  paying  homage  to  certain  na- 
ture-gods who  were  thought  to  own  the  land  and  to  give  it 
fertility.  These  were  the  local  Baals,  gods  who  lived  in  the 
springs  or  in  trees,  or  even  gave  rain.  When  the  Hebrews 
brought  their  God  Jehovah  to  live  beside  the  Baals,  in  the 
course  of  years  they  lost  the  distinction  between  them. 
Jehovah  himself  even  came  to  be  called  the  Hebrew  Baal, 
and  when  men  named  their  children,  they  used  with  equal 
readiness  compounds  containing  both  names  for  God,  "Jah" 
or  "Baal."  Saul  and  Jonathan  were  not  Baal-worshippers, 
but  they  named  their  sons  "Ish-baal"  and  "Meri-baal." 
Until  the  time  of  Elijah  this  Jehovah-Baal,  a  mixture  of  the 
nomad  god  of  their  Hebrew  ancestors  and  the  agricultural 
god  of  the  Canaanites,  excited  no  particular  suspicion,  and 
continued  to  be  worshipped  down  to  the  end  of  the  Hebrew 
state. 

But  Baal  Melkart  of  Tyre  was  a  different  divinity.  He 
was  the  god  of  a  powerful  foreign  state.  The  friendship  that 
had  been  begun  in  Saul's  day  between  the  Hebrews  and  the 
Phoenicians  had  strengthened  into  a  political  alliance  un- 
der Solomon  and  now  had  become  virtually  a  rivalry  for 
supremacy.  The  great  commerical  empire  of  Tyre  was  the 
stronger  partner.  Jezebel's  ambition  apparently  was  to 
rivet  the   Tyrian   bonds   so  firmly  that  Israel  could  never 


WHAT  BAALISM  MEANT 


161 


snake  them  off;  to  extend  the  domain  of  Melkart  and  rob 

Jehovah  of  his;  to  make  the  pleasant  valleys  of  Israel  merely 

a  Tyrian  back-land,  so  that  the  Israelite  oil  and  flax  and 

barley   and   wool   which 

Tyre    now    had   to   buy 

could  be  taken  in   taxes. 

The  menace  was  political 

as    well    as    religious; 

Israel's   independence 

was  at  stake. 

There  was  also  a  moral 
menace.  Melkart,  like 
most  Canaanite  gods, 
was  worshipped  with 
obscene  rites  that  were 
hateful  to  the  relatively 
clean  desert  races;  and 
with  Melkart  came  his 
goddess-wife  Ashtoreth, 
whose  worship  was  little 
more  than  an  orgy  of 
lust.  Jehovah  had  never 
tolerated  an  impure  wor- 
ship; and  although  some 
of  this  immorality  had 
crept  in  when  Jehovah 
became  an  agricultural 
god — the  Hebrew  Baal 
— yet  the  moral  instinct 
of  the  Hebrews  kept  the 
practices  in  check.     The 

burning  of  children  as  sacrifices,  for  example,  was  especially 
abhorrent  to  a  Hebrew,  yet  this  form  of  offering  was  par- 
ticularly pleasing  to  Melkart.  If  Baal  Melkart  should  be- 
come the  Hebrew  god,  Hebrew  morality  was  doomed.  Elijah 
was  the  first  to   see   clearly  that  the  religions  of  Baal  and 


Courtesy 


From  Buri/'s  History  of  Greece, 
of  Macmillan  Company. 

Fig.    SI— MAP    OF    TYRE 

On  this  rocky  island  was  the  palace  and  cap- 
ital city  of  Hiram,  friend  of  David  and 
Solomon,  and  of  Jezebel  the  wife  of 
Ahab.  Its  two  tiny  harbors  were  the 
physical  basis  of  the  great  commercial 
empire  of  the  Phoenicians.  Alexander 
captured  the  city  332  b.c.  by  construct- 
ing a  mole  to  it  from  the  mainland, 
large  enough  to  carry  his  siege  engines. 
Since  his  day  the  island  has  became  a 
peninsula  through  the  silting  up  of  the 
mole. 


162  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Jehovah  were  absolutely  and  fundamentally  hostile,  and 
could  not  exist  side  by  side.  Baal  was  sensual  and  Jehovah 
was  moral.  No  man  could  serve  two  such  masters.  Israel 
must  make  a  choice. 

97.  Jehovah's  Champion.  The  Jehovah  of  the  desert 
found  a  valiant  and  fitting  champion.  Elijah  was  a  rough, 
impetuous,  religious  zealot  from  east  of  the  Jordan,  one  who 
shunned  society  and  appeared  comet-like  from  time  to  time 
as  a  harbinger  of  disaster.  He  was  a  wild-looking  man  who 
had  never  cut  his  hair  and  beard,  and  whose  only  clothes 
consisted  of  a  shaggy  sheep  pelt.  No  wonder  Ahab  was 
startled  when  such  an  apparition  leaped  out  of  his  hiding- 
place  by  the  path  where  the  king  was  riding,  uttered  a  curse 
that  presaged  a  drought,  and  as  suddenly  disappeared. 
When  the  curse  was  fulfilled  Ahab  made  desperate  attempts 
to  find  the  troubler  of  Israel,  but  Elijah  took  refuge  in  the 
wilderness  beyond  the  Jordan,  and  later  in  an  obscure  village 
of  Phoenicia.  At  the  end  of  three  years  he  reappeared  and 
demanded  of  Ahab  that  he  assemble  all  Israel  on  Mount 
Carmel  in  order  that  Jehovah  and  Baal  might  demonstrate 
which  had  the  power  to  break  the  drought.  According  to 
popular  story  Ahab  complied.  Jezebel's  god  was  represented 
by  four  hundred  and  fifty  prophets  while  Jehovah  had 
Elijah  only.  All  day  the  priests  of  Baal  called  upon  their 
god  without  avail;  but  when  Elijah  prayed,  lightning  fell 
from  heaven  and  consumed  the  sacrifice  he  had  prepared. 
The  awed  assembly  followed  the  prophet's  commands,  took 
the  priests  of  Baal  down  to  the  river  Kishon  and  killed  them 
all.  Then  Jehovah  proved  himself  to  be  superior  to  Baal 
in  Baal's  own  province  of  rain-bringing  by  sending  a  deluge. 
Ahab  rode  back  in  haste  in  his  chariot  to  Jezreel,  and  Elijah 
in  the  strength  of  his  religious  frenzy  ran  the  whole  eighteen 
miles  in  front  of  the  horses. 

Queen  Jezebel  was  not  to  be  balked  by  even  a  popular 
revolution.  To  be  sure,  the  reaction  Elijah  had  created 
against  her  was  so  strong  that  she  did  not  dare  to  kill  him 


JEHOVAH'S  CHAMPION 


163 


outright,  but  she  sent  a  threat  that  frightened  him  out  of 
the  country.  He  fled  southward  to  Beersheba,  and  there  in 
the  depression   that  followed  upon  his  wild  exaltation  at 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    82— ROCK    OF    BURNING   MOUNT    CARMEL 

This  is  the  eastern  end  of  the  long  ridge  of  Carmel  that  runs  13  miles  north- 
west to  the  Mediterranean.  You  are  looking  northeast  to  the  hills  of 
Galilee.  A  glorious  panorama  unrolls  on  all  sides  from  this  point  em- 
bracing the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  with  Gilead,  Samaria,  and  the  plain  of 
Sharon.  Elijah  could  have  selected  no  spot  for  his  contest  so  conspicuous 
as  this.  (I  Kings  1819).  The  river  Kishon  flows  directly  past  the  base  of 
the  mountain  (I  Kings  1840). 


Carmel,  he  lost  confidence  in  himself  and  his  mission,  and 
wished  that  he  might  die.  Nor  did  he  recover  his  poise  until 
he  had  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Mount  Horeb  and  met  face  to 
face  the  historic  God  of  Israel  on  the  very  spot  where  the 


164 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


Hebrews  had  first  made  their  covenant  with  him.  The  pic- 
ture of  this  meeting  given  in  I  Kings  199"18  is  impressive  and 
dramatic.  By  this  experience  Elijah  was  made  to  realize 
that   though   his   own   personal   accomplishment   had   been 


Fig.    83— MOUNT    CARMEL    AND    THE    SEA 

This  is  the  extreme  western  end  of  Carmel  where  it  leaps  into  the  sea.  The 
building  on  the  brow  is  a  lighthouse.  That  to  the  left  is  a  monastery  used 
by  Napoleon  as  a  hospital  in  1799.  The  original  building  on  this  site  was 
the  house  of  the  order  of  Carmelites  (1156  a.d.).  Below  the  high  altar  in 
the  church  is  a  grotto  said  to  have  been  used  by  Elijah  (II  Kings  422-25). 
What  is  the  name  of  the  bay  to  the  right  ?  The  city  off  the  picture  to  the 
right  ?     Of  the  famous  city  across  the  bay  to  the  north  ? 


small,  Jehovah  would  still  bring  success  to  his  cause  by  means 
of  terrible  judgments  to  come,  and  that  others  must  be  in- 
spired to  become  the  ministers  of  Jehovah's  vengeance. 
These  ministers  were  to  be  Elisha,  Jehu,  and  Hazael;  the 
work  was  still  to  be  political  as  well  as  religious;  and  the 
instruments  were   to   be  revolution,   war,   and   murder.      A 


JEHOVAH'S  CHAMPION  165 

revelation  of  these  aims  shows  us  how  imperfect  as  yet  was 
even  a  prophet's  interpretation  of  God's  will. 

98.  The  People's  Champion.  Jezebel  had  brought  with 
her  from  Tyre  something  besides  the  worship  of  Baal  Mel- 
kart;  she  brought  the  idea  that  kings  had  the  divine  right 
to  do  as  they  pleased.  Her  father  had  practised  that  theory 
of  government,  and  though  her  husband  had  inherited  from 
his  Hebrew  ancestors  a  very  different  notion  of  kingship, 
she  was  bound  to  make  him  over  into  an  autocrat.  Here 
again  she  was  thwarted  by  Elijah. 

A  certain  Naboth  owned  a  fertile  vineyard  close  to  Ahab's 
palace  in  Jezreel.  Ahab  wanted  to  enlarge  his  grounds  and 
so  offered  to  buy  the  vineyard.  Naboth  refused  to  sell,  for 
the  reason  that  it  had  long  been  in  his  family.  Ahab  rec- 
ognized the  legality  of  Naboth's  position,  but  was  so  disap- 
pointed that  he  went  home  and  threw  himself  on  his  bed  in 
a  fit  of  sulks.  Jezebel  found  him  thus,  and  with  a  sneer  at 
the  king's  cowardice,  she  proceeded  in  true  Lady  Macbeth 
style  to  get  the  vineyard  for  Ahab.  Using  the  king's  seal, 
she  wrote  letters  to  certain  of  the  great  ones  commanding 
them  to  arrest  Naboth  on  the  charge  of  blasphemy  and 
treason,  and  to  have  him  stoned,  together  with  his  sons. 
This  judicial  murder  was  forthwith  committed.  Jezebel 
then  turned  the  property  over  to  Ahab.  That  was  her  con- 
ception of  the  divine  right  of  kings.  Elijah  met  Ahab  in 
the  flush  of  his  guilty  satisfaction,  as  he  went  down  to  take 
possession  of  the  vineyard.  There  was  no  uncertainty  in 
Elijah's  words.  He  called  Ahab  a  murderer  and  a  thief,  re- 
minded him  of  his  infidelity  to  Jehovah,  and  pronounced  the 
curse  that  his  whole  family  should  be  wiped  out.  Ahab  was 
frightened.  When  Elijah  saw  that  his  penitence  was  genu- 
ine, he  modified  the  curse  so  that  it  should  not  fall  in  Ahab's 
day  but  in  that  of  his  children. 

Elijah  is  here  the  defender  of  the  personal  rights  of  the 
common  man,  as  previously  he  had  been  the  defender  of 
the  ancestral  religion  of  Israel.     We  have  seen  how  the  He- 


166  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

brews  had  become  a  nation  by  means  of  a  revolt  against 
oppression,  and  that  they  had  ever  been  sensitive  to  tyr- 
anny; as  Burke  said  of  the  American  colonists:  "They  snuff 
the  approach  of  tyranny  in  every  tainted  breeze."  We  have 
seen  how  they  chafed  under  the  yoke  of  even  an  elected  king 
like  David;  how  they  had  actually  thrown  over  the  son  of 
Solomon  because  of  the  oppressions  of  his  father.  And  now 
under  the  growing  military  power  of  the  house  of  Omri,  and 
especially  under  the  dominance  of  Jezebel,  the  commoner 
was  again  running  the  risk  of  being  crushed,  might  was  fast 
destroying  right,  royal  will  was  in  a  fair  way  to  take  the 
place  of  the  consent  of  the  governed.  Elijah  had  the  in- 
sight to  see  that  this  piece  of  tyranny  was  in  reality  a  crime 
against  the  religious  heritage  and  the  moral  sense  of  the 
nation,  and  he  had  the  courage  to  denounce  the  tyrant  face 
to  face.  As  Moses  was  the  first,  so  Elijah  was  the  second 
great  champion  of  social  justice  and  democracy. 

99.  Elijah's  Limitations.  The  remaining  stories  of  Elijah, 
while  legendary  in  form,  are  true  in  essence.  Thev  reveal 
both  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of  this  fiery  prophet. 
Ahab's  son  Ahaziah  was  now  on  the  throne.  He  had  re- 
ceived a  mortal  injury  through  a  fall  and  was  sending  mes- 
sengers to  Baal-zebub  the  god  of  Ekron  to  see  if  he  should 
recover,  when  Elijah  met  the  men  and  sent  them  back  with 
the  stern  word:  "You  shall  surely  die!"  The  enraged  king 
sent  soldiers  to  seize  the  prophet,  but  the  man  of  God  called 
down  fire  from  heaven  and  consumed  two  successive  com- 
panies of  them.  Going,  however,  with  the  third  band,  he  de- 
nounced the  king  face  to  face  because  of  his  faithlessness  to 
the  God  of  Israel. 

Being  warned  that  his  own  departure  was  at  hand,  with 
his  new  disciple  Elisha  he  made  a  farewell  circuit  of  the 
various  prophetic  settlements.  Then  the  two  went  over 
Jordan  together,  the  master  having  cleft  the  water  with  a 
stroke  of  his  sheepskin  jacket.  Somewhere  in  the  Moab 
wilderness  he  was  caught  up  to  heaven  in  a  chariot  of  fire, 


ELIJAH'S   LIMITATIONS 


167 


leaving  to  his  astonished  disciple  Elisha  the  mantle  as  a 
token  that  he  should  carry  on  the  prophetic  work. 

These  stories  confirm  the  earlier  ones.     The  fire  that  he 
so  readily  called  down  from  heaven,  and  that  caught  him 


Fig.    84— RUINS    AT    SAMARIA 

Part  of  the  citadel  excavated  by  Harvard  University  in  1908 
9a — Herodian  retaining  wall  of  the  temple  of  Augustus. 
8,  8 — Seleucid  wall  enclosing  street. 

6 — Wall  of  the  Babylonian  colonists,  720-670  b.c. 
2,  8,  9 — Miscellaneous  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Roman  houses. 
The  foundations  of  the  palaces  of  Omri  and  Ahab  are  on  the  summit  to  the 
right,  underneath  the  temple  of  Augustus. 


away  from  earth  at  last,  symbolizes  his  whole  career.  Elijah 
was  uncompromising  and  destructive.  He  had  two  great 
ideals:  that  Jehovah  is  the  only  God  for  Israel  and  that  jus- 
tice is  greater  than  the  kingship.  One  might  almost  say 
that  Elijah's  work  was  a  protest  against  the  entire  Canaanite 
civilization — against  life  in  towns  with  their  vice,  against 
agriculture  and  trade  with  their  luxuries,  against  the  king- 
ship with  its  tendency  to  tyranny,  against  every  departure 


168  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

from  the  freedom  and  the  simplicity  and  the  narrowness  of 
nomad  life.  "Back  to  the  desert"  was  in  reality  Elijah's 
slogan.  These  ideas  became  the  basis  not  of  constructive 
work  but  of  denunciation,  vengeance,  murder.  He  had  no 
ability  to  reform  but  only  to  clear  the  path  for  reform;  not- 
to  build  up  the  good  by  patient  teaching,  but  to  protest 
against  the  bad;  not  to  work  with  kings  for  the  good  of 
the  nation,  but  to  arouse  the  hostility  of  kings  and  so  de- 
stroy any  chance  of  inaugurating  a  constructive  policy. 
Yet  in  preserving  the  old  religion  for  Israel  he  proved  to  be 
what  Elisha  said  he  had  been:  "The  chariots  of  Israel  and 
the  horsemen  thereof."  He  was  a  bulwark  against  the  on- 
slaughts of  Baalism  and  tyranny.  It  was  his  uncompromis- 
ing and  aggressive  loyalty  to  Jehovah  that  led  the  Jews  of  a 
later  day  to  place  his  name  at  the  head  of  all  the  prophets, 
even  as  Moses  was  chief  of  lawgivers,  and  that  caused  Jesus 
and  his  contemporaries  to  see  in  the  fiery  John  the  Baptist 
a  second  Elijah. 


XV 

THE   PEOPLE'S   BLOODY   EXECUTIONER 

The  half-century  following  the  death  of  Ahab  is  marked 
politically  by  petty  wars  and  religiously  by  the  maturing  of 
the  great  plot  for  the  overthrow  of  Baalism  and  the  house 
that  fostered  it. 

ISRAEL 

Ahaziah    (855-854),    son    of    Ahab.      Moab    revolted.      See 

Moabite  Stone. 
Joram,  or   Jehoram   (854-843),  brotner  of  Ahaziah.     Petty 

wars:   one  offensive   against  Moab   and  one  defensive 

against  Damascus. 
Jehu  (843-816),  destroyer  of  the  house  of  Ahab. 

JTTDAH 

Jehoram,  or  Joram  (850-843),  son  of  Jehoshaphat.  To  be 
distinguished  from  his  brother-in-law,  Joram  of  Israel. 
Edom  revolted. 

Ahaziah  (843),  son  of  Jehoram.  To  be  distinguished  from 
Ahaziah  of  Israel,  Ahab's  son.  His  mother  was  Atha- 
liah.  He  met  his  death  while  visiting  his  uncle  Jehoram 
of  Israel. 

Athaliah,  wife  of  Jehoram,  mother  of  Ahaziah,  murderer  of  her 
grandchildren,  and  usurper  of  the  throne  from  843  to  837. 

100.  A  Patriotic  Revolution^  The  most  significant  event 
of  Joram's  reign  does  not  appear  on  the  surface.  It  was  the 
campaign  of  education  carried  on  by  the  prophets  of  Israel 
under  the  direction  of  Elisha,  the  maturing  of  the  seeds  of 
revolution  planted  by  Elijah.    The  propaganda  was  worked 

169 


170  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

by  the  so-called  schools  of  the  prophets,  communities  of 
religious  enthusiasts  that  had  grown  up  round  the  old  sanctu- 
aries of  Gilgal,  Bethel,  Samaria,  and  the  like.  They  were  re- 
ligious in  the  sense  that  they  looked  to  Jehovah  for  their  in- 
spiration, which  showed  itself  in  an  uncontrolled  ecstasy 
brought  on  by  music;  but  they  were  at  bottom  patriotic,  for 
their  purpose  was  the  overthrow  of  the  dynasty  of  Ahab  and 
all  that  Ahab  stood  for  in  the  way  of  tyranny  and  Baalism. 
These  guilds  first  came  to  notice  in  the  time  of  Samuel  (sec. 
49).  Since  his  day  they  had  grown  in  numbers  and  influence, 
and  with  the  increase  of  foreign  elements  in  the  life  of  Israel 
they  had  become  more  intense  in  their  opposition.  By  this 
time  they  were  hotbeds  of  revolution — societies  whose  avowed 
purpose  was  to  knife  every  foreign  institution.  Outside  of 
the  guilds  also  there  was  a  strong  feeling  of  revolt  fostered 
by  such  men  as  Jehonadab,  who  so  applauded  Jehu's  work 
and  whose  descendants  were  found  later  by  Jeremiah  still 
clinging  tenaciously  to  their  peculiar  and  old-fashioned  cus- 
toms. The  aim  of  such  people  was  to  preserve  without 
change  the  old  nomadic  religion  of  Jehovah,  and  they  were 
therefore  bitterly  opposed  to  that  Canaanite  civilization 
which  had  been  adopted  by  the  rank  and  file  of  the  northern 
Israelites.  They  stood  as  a  permanent  protest  against  the 
corruption,  intemperance,  and  luxury  which  they  saw  were 
engulfing  their  nation  and  which  they  felt  had  been  greatly 
increased  under  the  influence  of  Jezebel  and  her  Tyrian  Baal. 
These  jealous  champions  of  Jehovah,  both  in  and  out  of  the 
circles  of  the  guilds,  now  began  to  enlist  a  wider  following 
from  the  mass  of  the  nation.  By  the  time  Joram  had  reigned 
ten  years,  the  leader  of  this  movement  felt  that  the  hour  had 
struck  for  a  national  house-cleaning. 

101.  The  Character  of  Elisha.  Elisha  must  be  regarded 
as  the  moving  spirit  of  all  this  work.  His  inspiration  had 
come  direct  from  the  great  champion  of  Israel's  earlier  ideals 
who  had  personally  called  him  from  the  plough  and  given 
him  six  years  of  companionship.     But  he  was  a  man  of  dif- 


THE  CHARACTER  OF  ELISHA 


171 


ferent  temper  from  the  explosive  Elijah.  In  appearance  he 
differed.  Elijah  was  hairy,  half  naked,  impulsive.  Elisha 
was  bald,  clothed  in  the  usual  manner,  and  composed.  When 
he  desired  the  ecstatic  trance  he  brought  it  on  by  music. 


Fig.    85— THE    GREAT    MOSQUE    OF    DAMASCUS 

You  are  standing  on  the  minaret  mentioned  in  Fig.  80  and  are  looking  north- 
east over  the  oasis  to  the  long  range  of  Anti-lebanon.  The  main  roof  of 
the  mosque  is  seen  at  the  right;  beyond  this  is  the  court  surrounded  by 
two-storied  cloisters.  There  are  three  minarets,  the  one  shown  here  being 
named  "The  Bride's." 

The  mosque  was  built  by  the  Caliph  Welid  (705-715  a.d.)  by  making  over  the 
magnificent  church  of  St.  John,  which  the  emperor  Theodosius  I  (379- 
395  a.d.)  had  constructed  out  of  a  Roman  temple  to  Jupiter.  This  tem- 
ple, in  turn,  was  the  successor  of  the  old  Aramaic  temple  to  Rimmon,  the 
thunder  god.  The  site  therefore  has  a  continuous  history  as  a  holy  place 
for  at  least  2,800  years.  To  this  temple  used  to  come  Naaman  the  Syrian 
on  whose  arm  the  king  of  Damascus  leaned.      (II  Kings  517  ls.) 


Elijah  was  solitary.  Elisha  was  a  companionable  man  who 
loved  society  and  frequented  the  cities  and  the  homes  of 
Israel.  He  was  a  man  of  incessant  activity,  appearing  now 
here  and  now  there,  in  Israel,  Judah,  Phoenicia,  Moab, 
Damascus,  and  always  with  work  on  hand  that  furthered  his 
mission.     The  Bible  stories  that  so  charm  us  testify  to  his 


172  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

constant  spirit  of  helpfulness  and  show  a  fundamental  good- 
will, which  was  no  doubt  the  basis  of  his  popularity  and  of 
his  success  as  a  revolutionist. 

Unlike  his  predecessor,  Elisha  was  a  friend  of  kings  both 
at  home  and  abroad.  Which  kings  of  Israel  he  especially 
served  the  sources  do  not  always  tell  us,  but  we  know  that 
he  was  active  during  the  reigns  of  Joram,  Jehu,  Jehoahaz, 
and  Joash.  Since  he  lived  forty-five  years  after  the  revo- 
lution of  Jehu,  we  may  well  suppose  that  the  stories  about 
his  helpful  clairvoyancy  against  the  invading  Arameans  be- 
long to  this  latter  period,  when  of  course  his  opposition  to  the 
government  had  ceased.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  him 
with  Elijah  in  this  regard:  Elijah  seemed  to  Ahab  and  Aha- 
ziah  to  be  a  personal  enemy,  one  to  be  hunted  and  put  out 
of  the  way;  Elisha,  though  held  in  awe  because  of  his  pro- 
phetic powers,  was  sent  for,  consulted,  and  loved  alike  by 
rulers  and  people. 

102.  Elisha  the  Revolutionist.  The  object  that  lay  next 
to  Elisha's  heart  was  the  overthrow  of  Baalism  and  the 
iniquitous  house  of  Ahab.  We  can  only  infer  the  means  he 
used  to  educate  the  people,  aside  from  his  patronage  of  the 
schools  of  the  prophets.  But  we  know  that  he  was  a  keen 
observer  of  current  affairs.  When  he  considered  the  time 
ripe  for  action,  he  acttd.  He  did  not  limit  his  activity  to 
Israel,  for  one  of  his  most  unaccountable  and  far-reaching 
acts  was  the  instigation  of  Hazael  to  murder  his  master 
Benhadad  and  seize  the  throne  of  Damascus.  He  must 
have  seen  in  this  event  some  hope  of  furthering  his  great 
ambition  to  overthrow  the  house  of  Ahab,  but  the  sequel 
proved  most  disastrous.  It  was  this  same  Hazael  who  forty 
years  later  brought  Israel  to  the  very  verge  of  annihilation. 
The  crowning  act  of  Elisha's  career  was  the  anointing  of 
Jehu,  by  which  the  whole  mine  of  revolution  he  had  been 
laying  was  fired. 

103.  The  Ripening  Plot.  Elisha  worked  and  waited  more 
than  ten  years  before  he  felt  that  the  time  was  ripe.     Then 


THE  RIPENING  PLOT  173 

the  situation  and  the  man  came  to  hand.  King  Joram  of 
Israel  had  been  campaigning  against  the  Arameans  at 
Ramoth  Gilead,  the  old  bone  of  contention  between  his 
father  Ahab  and  Benhadad.  Joram  had  been  wounded 
and  had  returned  to  Jezreel  to  recuperate,  leaving  his  army 
and  his  captains  in  the  field  in  charge  of  a  young  cavalry 
officer,  Jehu.  Elisha  evidently  knew  the  temper  of  the  army, 
as  he  certainly  knew  Jehu,  for  without  the  backing  of  the 
one  and  the  aggressive  leadership  of  the  other  the  revolution 
would  have  been  a  failure.  He  therefore  sent  one  of  his 
young  disciples  to  tell  Jehu  that  "the  day"  had  come.  The 
prophet  found  Jehu  and  the  other  captains  in  council.  Call- 
ing Jehu  into  an  inner  room  he  poured  oil  on  his  head,  pro- 
claimed in  Jehovah's  name  that  he  was  king,  and  disap- 
peared. When  his  fellow  captains  learned  what  the  prophet 
had  done  they  at  once  hailed  Jehu  as  king,  and  the  entire 
army  accepted  the  revolution. 

104.  Jehu  the  Reckless.  Jehu's  action  shows  at  once  his 
impetuous  and  clean-cut  executive  quality;  his  first  thought 
determined  his  first  act.  Leaving  orders  that  none  should 
depart  from  Ramoth  Gilead  to  tell  the  news,  he  took  a  chariot 
and  a  small  body-guard  of  cavalry  and  started  post-haste  for 
Jezreel,  thirty  miles  away.  The  guard  on  Jezreel  tower  saw 
a  cloud  of  dust  whirling  up  from  the  valley  road  to  the  east- 
ward and  reported  to  the  king.  Joram  ordered  two  suc- 
cessive couriers  to  ride  down  and  find  the  nature  of  the  em- 
bassy, but  they  were  not  allowed  to  return.  This  was 
suspicious.  The  watchman  now  guessed  from  the  furious 
driving  that  it  was  Jehu.  The  king,  fearing  that  affairs 
had  gone  wrong  with  the  army,  mounted  his  chariot  and, 
together  wTith  King  Ahaziah  of  Judah,  who  had  come  up  on 
a  visit  to  his  convalescing  uncle,  rode  out  to  learn  the  worst. 
They  met  Jehu  in  the  field  of  Naboth,  which  was  a  fitting 
scene  for  the  culmination  of  the  revolt.  In  answer  to 
Joram's  question,  Jehu  sent  an  arrow  through  the  king's 
heart.    Ahaziah  turned  his  chariot  to  fleeL— Jehu  ordered  his 


174  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

men  to  kill  him  also;  so  they  overtook  him  and  wounded 
him  as  he  entered  the  hill-country  at  Ibleam.  Fearing  to 
continue  by  the  direct  road,  his  servants  took  a  long  detour 
by  way  of  Megiddo,  where  Ahaziah  died.  Thence  the  body 
was  taken  to  Jerusalem  by  the  maritime  plain,  avoiding  the 
bloody  territory  of  Israel. 

Jehu  now  turned  to  the  palace.  The  queen-mother  Jezebel 
had  heard  the  news  and  understood  at  once  the  fate  that  was 
awaiting  her.  She  resolved  to  die  like  a  queen.  Putting  on 
all  her  robes  of  state  she  appeared  boldly  at  the  window  as 
Jehu  drove  into  the  palace  yard.  With  the  stinging  taunt 
"You  Zimri !"  she  placed  him  where  he  belonged  among  the 
assassins.  Then  at  Jehu's  command  she  was  thrown  head- 
long to  the  ground  by  the  servants.  Jehu  drove  his  chariot 
over  her  and  went  in  to  dinner.  When  later  he  bethought 
himself  of  his  duty  to  bury  her  as  a  queen,  he  found  that  the 
dogs  had  relieved  him  of  that  trouble. 

105.  Athaliah's  Brief  Usurpation  in  Judah.  When  the 
body  of  the  murdered  Ahaziah  reached  Jerusalem,  the  unex- 
pected happened.  Fearing  that  the  death  of  her  son,  brother, 
and  mother  meant  the  overthrow  of  her  influence  in  Judah, 
the  queen-mother  Athaliah  at  once  took  the  initiative  in  an 
act  that  showed  her  to  be  a  true  descendant  of  Ethbaal  and 
Jezebel.  She  seized  the  throne  and  had  all  of  her  son's  chil- 
dren killed  (as  she  supposed)  in  order  that  there  might  be 
none  to  dispute  her  claim.  For  six  years  (843-837)  Jeru- 
salem tamely  submitted  to  the  murderer.  One  little  year- 
old  son  of  Ahaziah,  however,  was  rescued  from  assassination 
by  his  aunt,  who  had  married  the  high  priest  Jehoiada,  and 
was  reared  by  her  in  secret  until  the  time  should  be  ripe  in 
Judah  to  treat  the  house  of  Ahab  as  it  was  treated  in  Israel. 

106.  The  Bloody  Slaughter.  But  Jehu  had  hardly  begun 
his  task  of  killing  in  Israel.  He  wrote  letters  to  the  elders  in 
Samaria  challenging  them  to  put  a  prince  of  the  house  of 
Ahab  on  the  throne  and  fight  it  out.  Seeing  at  a  glance  that 
with  the  whole  regular  army  at  Jehu's  back  they  had  no 


THE  BLOODY  SLAUGHTER  175 

possible  chance  to  win,  the  elders  sent  an  abject  submission. 
Jehu  then  ordered  them  to  prove  their  loyalty  to  him  by 
sending  him  the  heads  of  all  the  descendants  of  Ahab, 
seventy  men.  Next  morning  the  baskets  filled  with  heads 
were  delivered  in  Jezreel,  and  Jehu  used  them  as  an  argu- 
ment with  the  men  of  that  town  that  it  would  be  unwise  to 
meddle  in  his  plans.  Then  he  proceeded  to  murder  every- 
body in  Jezreel  who  had  any  connection  by  blood  or  friend- 
ship or  official  position  with  the  house  of  Ahab.  Starting 
for  Samaria,  Jehu  fell  in  with  a  company  of  Judean  princes 
on  their  way  to  visit  their  royal  cousins  of  Israel.  Coming 
by  the  direct  road  north  they  had  not  met  the  corpse  of  their 
brother  nor  heard  of  the  revolution.  Jehu  had  them  all 
killed. 

Next  Jehu  met  Jehonadab  the  son  of  Rechab,  the  fanatical 
founder  of  that  religious  group  whose  aim  was  to  reject  all 
customs  that  the  Hebrews  had  adopted  from  the  Canaanites 
— wine-drinking,  stone  houses,  Baal-worship,  and  all.  Jehu 
recognized  him  as  a  kindred  spirit,  took  him  into  his  chariot, 
and  said:  "  Come,  see  my  zeal  for  Jehovah  !"  Riding  thence 
to  Samaria,  Jehu  repeated  his  orgy  of  blood  against  all  Ahab's 
relatives  and  sympathizers.  Then  assembling  all  the  priests 
and  worshippers  of  Baal  in  their  temple,  under  pretext  that 
he  himself  had  decided  to  out-Ahab  Ahab  in  his  zeal  for 
Baal,  he  gave  signal  to  his  soldiers  to  kill  every  one.  The 
temple  was  destroyed  and  the  site  desecrated.  Thus  Tyrian 
Baalism  was  destroyed  root  and  branch,  together  with  the 
house  of  Ahab  that  had  introduced  it.  Jehu's  sword  had 
accomplished  what  Elijah's  lightning  and  Elisha's  plottings 
had  not  been  able  to  effect. 

107.  Estimates  of  Jehu's  Work.  The  biblical  writers  who 
held  the  theory  that  prosperity  and  adversity  were  the  signs 
of  Jehovah's  pleasure  and  displeasure  felt  that  Jehovah  was 
pleased  with  all  this  killing  because  he  allowed  four  descen- 
dants of  Jehu  to  sit  on  the  throne  after  him.  But,  seeing  also 
that  he  was  badly  beaten  in  the  wars  with  Damascus,  they 


176 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


Fig.    86— BLACK 

OBELISK    OF 

SHALMANESER  III 

Set  up  by  Shalmaneser 
in  his  palace  at  Nim- 
rud  about  825  b.c. 
and  inscribed  with  an 
account  of  his  thirty- 
one  years  of  cam- 
paigning in  the  West- 
lands.  It  is  now  in 
the  British  Museum, 
London.  Each  of  the 
five  divisions,  carried 
round  on  four  sides, 
pictures  the  tribute 
brought  by  a  separate 
nation.  The  section 
next  to  the  top  is  de- 
voted to ' '  Jehu,  son  of 
Omri,  king  of  Israel." 
For  details,  see  Figs. 
87  and  88.  What  ani- 
mals do  you  discover 
on  the  monument? 


concluded  that  Jehovah  was  displeased 
because  he  had  not  gone  far  enough  in 
his  religious  house-cleaning  to  remove 
Jeroboam's  calves  at  Bethel  and  Dan  ! 
(Sec.  86.)  But  these  simple-minded 
judgments  were  reversed  by  the  great 
moral  teachers  of  Israel  who  soon  came 
upon  the  scene.  Hosea  looked  upon  this 
unatoned  guilt  with  horror  and  boldly 
proclaimed  that  God  would  punish  not 
only  Jehu's  dynasty  but  the  whole 
kingdom.  It  is  quite  clear  to  us  that 
Jehu's  reforming  zeal  was  worse  than 
unholy;  it  was  destructive  and  insane 
fanaticism  that  cared  not  what  might  be- 
come of  the  state  provided  only  that  a 
certain  type  of  worship  might  prevail. 
His  holy  massacres  were  forerunners  of 
Saint  Bartholomew's  Day,  the  Inquisi- 
tion, and  the  crucifixion  of  Armenia. 
Nor  did  the  revolution  accomplish  any- 
thing permanent  for  democracy.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  people  were  be- 
hind it,  but  by  killing  off  the  strong  men 
of  the  nation  in  true  Bolshevist  style 
they  laid  their  country  open  to  the  most 
crushing  foreign  tyranny  it  had  yet  ex- 
perienced. 

108.  The  Revolution  in  Judah.  While 
Jehu's  revolution  had  been  at  once  suc- 
cessful in  ridding  Israel  of  the  house  of 
Ahab,  it  brought  to  the  front  in  Judah 
one  of  the  worst  members  of  that  house. 
Athaliah,  as  we  have  seen,  ruled  tyran- 
nically for  six  years.  But  the  leaven  of 
hatred  of  the  foreigner  was  at  work  in 


THE  REVOLUTION  IN  JUDAH  177 

the  popular  mind.  Those  who  encouraged  and  directed  the 
hatred  were  not  the  free-lance,  irresponsible  prophets,  as 
in  Israel,  but  the  priests  of  Jehovah,  led  by  the  high  priest 
Jehoiada,  himself,  who  irked  to  see  the  priests  of  Baal  ri- 
valling them.  As  in  the  north,  the  conspirator  made 
sure  of  armed  backing  before  he  struck.  Jehoiada  took 
into  his  confidence  the  officers  of  the  palace  guard,  showed 
them  the  young  prince  Joash,  now  seven  years  old,  and 
laid  before  them  his  carefully  planned  stratagem.  Accord- 
ingly on  a  Sabbath  day,  at  an  hour  when  the  guards  were 
changed,  all  the  detachments  of  troops  assembled  in  the 
temple  area,  the  child  was  presented  to  them  and  crowned. 
The  queen,  hearing  the  shouting,  hastened  to  the  temple, 
but  the  guards  turned  her  away  from  the  sacred  precincts 
and  put  her  to  death  in  the  palace.  King  and  people 
then  renewed  their  covenant  of  loyalty  to  Jehovah  and  to 
David's  dynasty,  and  proceeded  to  tear  down  the  altar  of 
Baal  and  kill  his  priests.  Thus,  though  belated,  the  ideals 
which  Elijah  had  initiated  thirty-five  years  before  were  fully 
realized.  Palestine  for  the  Hebrews,  the  Hebrews  for  Jeho- 
vah, and  kings  responsive  to  the  popular  will.  But  at 
what  cost ! 

109.  The  Bitter  Fruits  of  Jehu's  Revolution.  Jehu's  zeal 
for  Jehovah  now  began  to  reap  its  natural  harvest;  he  had 
sown  to  the  wind  and  the  whirlwind  was  approaching.  In 
842  B.C.,  on  the  very  heels  of  his  wholesale  killing,  the  in- 
veterate Shalmaneser  put  in  an  appearance  beyond  the 
Lebanons.  Jehu  knew  full  well  that  he  had  no  means  of 
resisting  the  conqueror;  the  leading  men  of  the  nation  were 
in  bloody  graves;  all  who  had  had  experience  in  state  af- 
fairs were  no  more;  Athaliah,  whom  his  zeal  had  unexpect- 
edly placed  on  the  throne  of  Judah,  was  his  sworn  enemy; 
Hazael  of  Damascus  was  too  powerful  to  be  a  safe  ally,  and 
Jehu's  inability  to  aid  him  against  Assyria  had  made  him 
angry.  There  was  only  one  thing  to  do  and  that  was  to  buy 
off  Shalmaneser.     Though  the  Bible  is  silent  on  this  matter, 


178 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


^ps^P^p^wS  ^W^^; 


TRIBUTE    OF    J  EH  V,    SON    OF    OSIil  SILVER 


7Z&&ite&m$Fjk 


COI.D  B01VI,  SOFGOLD  CHALICES    OF    GOLD 

Fig.    87— TRIBUTE    OF    JEHU 

Details  of  Fig.  86.  Upper  panel:  Find  Shalmaneser,  fan-bearer,  attendant, 
Jehu  (or  his  chief  envoy),  an  emblem  of  the  sun-god,  two  Assyrian  officers. 
Lower  panel  (a  continuation  of  the  upper  one,  to  the  right) :  Note  details 
of  dress. 

Shalmaneser  has  given  us  the  full  story.  On  his  black 
obelisk  in  the  British  Museum  we  see  Jehu  on  all  fours 
before  the  conqueror,  his  forehead  on  the  ground,  waiting 
for  the  Assyrian  to  put  his  foot  on  his  neck  in  symbol  of 


THE  FRUITS  OF  JEHU'S  REVOLUTION        179 


UPS    OF    C  O  I. 


rrs  of-  c o  i. 0 


A     ROYAI.    SCEPTRE 


I     RECEIVED 


Fig.    88— TRIBUTE    OF    JEHU 

Details  of  Fig.  86  and  continuing  the  series  of  Fig.  87.  Identify  as  far  as  possi- 
ble the  objects  mentioned.  The  English  printed  under  each  panel  is  a 
translation  of  the  cuneiform  text  above  it. 


overlordship,  while  behind  follows  the  train  of  Jehu's  ser- 
vants bearing  the  price  of  Israel's  disgrace. 

Hazael   of   Damascus   seems   to   have   been   able   to   turn 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Assyria,  though  he  lost  everything  but  his  capital  city. 
For  the  next  thirty  years  he  made  good  his  losses  at  the 
expense  of  Israel  and  the  other  nations  to  the  south.  He 
fulfilled  all  the  visions  of  evil  that  Elisha  had  foreseen  of 
him.  First  he  ravaged  the  east-Jordan  territory,  not  only 
Hebrew  but  Moabite.  His  barbarity  knew  no  limit:  cities 
were  pillaged,  men  were  pitilessly  slain,  women  were  ravished, 
and  children  were  dragged  off  to  cruel  slavery  (Amos  l3). 
West  of  Jordan  he  swept  over  the  maritime  plain  as  far  south 
as  the  Philistine  city  of  Gath.  Joash  of  Judah  knew  that  he 
was  powerless  to  resist  and  therefore  tried  gold.  He  stripped 
his  palace  and  the  temple  »f  all  the  treasures  that  had  been 
accumulating  since  Asa's  day  (Sec.  92).  Thus  both  kingdoms 
were  brought  low,  and  Jehu  was  t©  blame.  Never  was  there 
a  mere  significant  illustration  of  the  principle  that  they  who 
take  the  sword  shall  perish  by  the  sword.  And  the  evil  that 
Jehu  did  lived  after  him. 


XVI 
THE  PROTEST  AGAINST  GREED  AND  PRIVILEGE 

ISRAEL 

Jehoahaz  (816-800),  son  of  Jehu. 
Jehoash  (800-785),  son  of  Jehoahaz. 
Jeroboam  II  (785-745),  son  of  Jehoash. 

JUDAH 

Joash  (837-798),  son  of  Ahaziah. 
Amaziah  (798-790),  son  of  Joash. 
Uzziah  or  Azariah  (790-749),  son  of  Amaziah. 

In  the  period  covered  by  this  chapter,  from  the  death  of 
Jehu  in  816  to  the  death  of  Uzziah  in  739,  the  two  kingdoms 
were  on  the  downward  road,  each  suffering  from  the  excesses 
and  weaknesses  of  the  past ;  then,  with  the  release  from  for- 
eign oppression,  came  a  rebound  to  great  apparent  prosper- 
ity. What  an  individual  or  a  people  does  in  its  moments  of 
freedom  is  highly  significant  of  character.  In  this  period 
the  material  ideals  that  had  all  along  been  growing  in  the 
Hebrew  civilization  at  last  had  an  opportunity  to  come  to 
fruitage.  They  were  wrong  ideals  and  they  brought  forth 
death. 

110.  The  Power  of  the  Priests  in  Judah.  One  incident  in 
the  reign  of  Joash  shows  a  new  tendency  in  religion.  When 
he  undertook  to  repair  the  temple  he  discovered  that  the 
priests  were  profiting  by  the  income  of  the  sanctuary  but 
were  quite  unwilling  to  share  in  the  expense  of  maintaining  it. 
Joash  therefore  made  definite  regulations  by  which  certain 
classes  of  income  should  go  by  right  to  the  priests  and  cer- 
tain others  to  the  maintenance  fund  administered  by  lay- 

181 


182  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

men.  The  incident  shows  that  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  was 
no  longer  merely  a  royal  shrine  but  was  becoming  a  popular 
place  of  worship,  and  that  the  priests  had  become  a  power- 
ful body  with  vested  interests  in  that  worship.  Judah,  even 
at  this  early  date,  was  becoming  churchly  and  priest-ridden 
as  Israel  never  became.  The  power  of  the  priest  is  no  doubt 
shown  by  the  fact  that  when  Joash  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
reign  somewhat  relaxed  his  zeal  for  Jehovah-worship  and 
put  to  death  a  son  of  the  high  priest  who  criticised  him,  he 
was  promptly  assassinated. 

111.  The  Reigns  of  Jehoahaz  and  Jehoash.  Hazael  the 
Aramean  continued  to  crush  Israel  during  the  reigns  of 
Jehu's  son  and  grandson.  The  only  territory  that  he  left  to 
Jehoahaz  was  a  few  square  miles  around  Samaria;  while  he 
limited  the  entire  military  establishment  of  Israel  to  50 
horsemen,  10  chariots,  and  10,000  infantry. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  reign  of  Jehu's  grandson,  Jehoash,  the 
land  reached  the  depths  of  humiliation.  Judah  also  was  laid 
under  tribute.  But  with  the  death  of  Hazael  a  change  came. 
First,  the  hitherto  obscure  kingdom  of  Hazrak  in  northern 
Syria  became  strong  and,  while  Assyria  was  busy  elsewhere, 
gave  Damascus  so  much  trouble  that  Damascus  let  Jehoash 
alone.  Then  Assyria,  under  Adad-nirari  III,  swept  down  in 
797  and  caught  in  her  drag-net  of  tribute  Edom,  Philistia, 
Damascus,  Tyre,  Sidon,  Israel,  and  probably  Judah.  Da- 
mascus, which  had  proved  so  stubborn  in  the  past,  was  the 
special  object  of  the  expedition.  It  was  forced  to  pay  an  en- 
ormous indemnity  which  permanently  crippled  it.  As  soon 
as  the  Assyrian  armies  had  withdrawn,  Jehoash  proceeded  to 
pay  off  old  scores  with  Damascus;  he  won  three  victories  and 
retook  several  cities  his  father  had  lost.  Meantime  Judah, 
too,  felt  the  release  from  Aramean  pressure  and  began  to  ex- 
pand. Edom  was  first  reduced,  in  order  no  doubt  to  gain 
control  of  the  trade  routes  to  the  south  and  to  make  Elath  a 
Judean  port.  This  touch  of  success  made  Amaziah,  who  had 
succeeded  his  father  Joash,  so  conceited  that  he  dared  Jeho- 


^ 


THE  REIGN  OF  JEHOASH 


1S3 


Fig.    89— EGYPTIAN    CHAIR 

Found  by  Mr.  Theodore  Davis  in  the  tomb  of  Iouiya  and  Touiyou,  the  parents 
of  Queen  Ti,  wife  of  Amenhotep  III  (c.  1400  b.c).  It  is  made  of  stained 
wood,  with  lion  feet.  The  two  sculptured  heads  were  gilded.  On  the 
chair-back  is  shown  a  Nile  goddess  receiving  a  necklace  from  the  princess 
who  owned  the  chair;  this  done  in  relief  and  gilded.  On  the  arms,  four 
women  bring  gold  and  offerings  and  gods  dance.  The  seat  is  of  woven 
leather.  Other  pieces  of  furniture  of  this  period  show  beautiful  inlay  of 
semi-precious  stones. 

Against  the  introduction  of  luxuries  like  these  the  prophet  Amos  preached  (Sec. 
114,  and  Amos  6  J-6). 


ash  of  Israel  to  hold  him  any  longer  in  vassalage.  Jehoash  was 
now  in  position  to  accept  the  challenge  of  Amaziah.  Taking 
his  army  into  Judean  territory,  Jehoash  defeated  and  captured 
Amaziah,  tore  down  a  large  section  of  the  north  wall  of 
Jerusalem,  looted  the  palace  and  temple,  and  took  hostages 
to  insure  future  good  conduct.      Judah  remained  henceforth 


184  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

a  vassal  of  Israel  until  Israel  was  destroyed.  Israel  was  now 
well  on  the  up  grade.  Damascus  had  been  crushed,  Assyria 
was  busy  with  wars  to  the  north,  especially  with  Armenia,  and 
Jehoash  could  leave  to  his  son  a  free  kingdom  and  great  hopes. 

112.  The  Strong  Policy  of  Uzziah  of  Judah.  The  folly  of 
Amaziah  in  attacking  Israel  caused  a  popular  insurrection. 
The  king  tried  to  flee  but  was  caught  and  assassinated.  The 
insurrectionists  then  put  on  the  throne  his  sixteen-year-old 
son,  Uzziah  or  Azariah.  Between  the  priests  and  the  people 
kings  in  Judah  were  having  many  trials. 

The  youthful  king  proved  to  be  an  exceptionally  able 
ruler.  Without  attempting  to  throw  off  the  overlordship  of 
Israel,  he  set  himself  to  strengthen  his  kingdom  internally 
and  to  extend  his  power  abroad.  He  fortified  Elath  on  the 
Red  Sea.  Philistia  he  conquered  and  colonized.  The  trade 
routes  that  crossed  his  domain  he  made  secure  with  garrisons 
and  watch-towers.  He  strongly  fortified  Jerusalem,  and 
made  use  of  artillery  for  throwing  stones — the  first  Hebrew 
to  do  so.  Jerusalem  proceeded  to  grow  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
Realizing  that  prosperity  comes  primarily  from  the  soil,  he 
took  an  active  hand  in  agriculture  and  cattle-raising.  Wealth 
increased.  In  Judah  it  seemed  as  if  permanent  prosperity 
had  at  last  arrived. 

113.  Israel's  Indian  Summer.  It  is  singular  that  the 
longest  and  most  brilliant  reign  of  Israel  should  receive 
hardly  any  mention  in  the  biblical  narratives.  We  know 
only  that  Jeroboam  II,  the  son  of  Jehoash,  extended  his 
political  swa)  over  practically  all  of  David's  kingdom  from 
Hamath  on  the  north  to  the  Dead  Sea  on  the  south;  and 
counting  Judah  as  vassal,  the  limit  of  his  power  southward 
was  Egypt.  Naturally,  the  one  condition  that  made  this 
burst  of  power  possible  was  the  inactivity  of  Assyria.  By 
a  strange  coincidence  both  Israel  and  Judah  were  ruled  by 
brilliant  and  able  kings,  whose  long  reigns  were  contempo- 
raneous. For  a  whole  generation,  therefore,  the  Hebrews 
enjoyed  what  has  been  called  an  Indian  summer  of  prosperity. 


ISRAEL'S  INDIAN  SUMMER 


185 


■ 

,  »      .  . 

wm*f* 

~'*m*&lTWQ&jM 

^"'-i^V 

fcOl 

i  •  ■fs?                'i»^^ 

"^*^Vj-r<it3 

Fig.  90— DIADEMS   OF  A  TWELFTH   DYNASTY  PRINCESS, 
FOUND  IN  HER    TOMB    AT    DASHUR.      (Cairo  Museum.) 

These  delicate  pieces  of  jewelry  illustrate  the  foreign  luxuries  against  the  in- 
troduction of  which  the  Hebrew  prophets  cried  out.  The  upper  crown 
consists  of  a  delicate  framework  of  gold  threads  springing  from  four 
Maltese  crosses  of  gold,  carnelian  and  blue  faience.  Tiny  flowerets  of 
red,  blue,  and  gold  are  scattered  among  the  threads.  The  lower  crown 
is  of  gold,  lapis-lazuli,  carnelian,  red  jasper,  and  green  felspar,  and  is  made 
in  an  alternating  pattern  of  rosettes  and  lyres. 


186  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

114.  A  Glance  Beneath  the  Surface.  While  the  his- 
torians are  silent  regarding  internal  conditions  in  both 
Judah  and  Israel,  a  flood  of  evidence  pours  in  from  the  writ- 
ings of  the  prophets  Amos  and  Hosea.  From  them  we  learn 
that  a  great  social  transformation  had  been  going  on.  When 
the  tide  of  the  Aramean  wars  turned  back,  out  of  the  Israelite 
conquests  came  abundant  spoils  to  enrich  the  kings  and  their 
favorites.  Peace  enabled  the  nobles  and  richer  classes  in 
Israel  to  develop  their  country's  naturally  great  resources, 
and  in  Judah  the  same  thing  happened,  only  on  a  smaller 
scale.  Commerce  also  brought  to  them  rapidly  increasing 
wealth,  for  across  the  broad  valleys  of  northern  Israel  ran 
the  main  trade  routes  which  bore  the  rich  products  of 
Egypt  and  Babylonia,  of  Phoenicia  and  Arabia;  and  Judah 
controlled  all  exits  to  the  south.  Thus  during  the  first  half 
of  the  eighth  pre-Christian  century  the  Hebrews  ceased  to  be 
simply  a  nation  of  shepherds  and  farmers.  Cities  took  the 
place  of  villages,  and  the  fruits  of  commerce  completed  the 
sudden  transformation.  The  powerful  nobles  and  richer 
classes  transferred  their  homes  to  the  capital  or  to  the 
larger  cities.  Meantime,  as  a  result  of  the  vicissitudes  of 
war,  the  middle  class  had  been  either  killed  off  or  largely  re- 
duced to  serfdom.  Obliged  to  borrow  of  the  rich  nobles  at 
exorbitant  rates  of  interest,  they  had  not  only  lost  their 
mortgaged  lands  but  their  freedom.  Heavy  taxation  and 
unjust  decisions  in  the  law  courts,  over  which  the  rich  and 
ruling  classes  presided,  had  completed  their  enslavement. 
The  love  of  luxury  and  display  had  rendered  the  rich  in- 
sensible to  the  sufferings  of  the  poor,  who  were  the  victims 
of  their  greed  and  legalized  injustice.  To  all  external  ap- 
pearances both  kingdoms  were  prosperous  and  powerful; 
but  the  majority  of  their  citizens  were  sad  and  sodden, 
crushed  by  the  small  ruling  class  that  wrongfully  exploited 
them.  Their  social  problems  were  those  of  the  modern  city 
and  of  a  developed  commercial  civilization:  special  class 
privilege,    misuse   of   authority,    unjust   distribution   of   the 


A  GLANCE  BENEATH  THE  SURFACE 


187 


'■$S^jtA-- 


Fig.    91— WEIGHING    GOLD 

Section  of  the  beautifully  carved  "Expedition  to  Punt"  in  the  colonnade  of 
Queen  Hatasu's  temple  at  Thebes.  Note  the  great  scales,  with  the  in- 
dicator hanging  from  the  beam  near  the  pivot.  In  the  right  pan,  are 
piled  the  rings  of  gold  to  be  weighed,  while  near  by  are  rings  and  other  ob- 
jects together  with  groups  of  weights  in  the  form  of  oxen.  The  inscription 
tells  us  that  "silver,  lazuli,  malachite,  and  every  splendid  costly  stone" 
was  also  weighed.  In  the  left  pan  are  the  ox-weights.  Many  weights  of 
this  kind  have  been  found  in  Egypt,  oxen  and  ducks  having  been  the 
medium  of  exchange  before  weights  were  invented.  The  ox  was  regarded 
as  a  unit  of  value  everywhere  in  the  East;  so  that  in  Rome  the  word  for  a 
head  of  cattle,  pecus,  became  pecunia,  money.  The  figure  of  the  weigher 
has  been  chiselled  out  because  of  the  spite  of  Queen  Hatasu's  successor, 
Thothmes  III. 


burden    of    taxation,    and    the    wicked    exploitation    of   the 
masses. 

To  make  matters  worse,  the  old  popular  Semitic  concep- 
tion of  religion  still  prevailed.  As  long  as  the  rulers  brought 
rich  sacrifices  to  the  sanctuaries  and  faithfully  met  the  de- 
mands of  the  ritual,  they  felt  sure  of  Jehovah's  favor  and 
protection.      Though    the    very    offerings    they    brought    to 


188  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Jehovah  had  been  wrested  from  their  fellow  countrymen  by 
injustice  and  oppression,  they  felt  confident  that  all  was 
well,  since  Jehovah  was  prospering  them.  Even  at  the  great 
religious  festivals  there  were  gluttony,  drunkenness,  and 
immorality;  and  yet  they  believed  that  by  the  splendor  of 
their  ritual  they  were  purchasing  Jehovah's  continued  favor. 
The  poor,  who  had  no  such  offerings  to  bring,  must  have  felt 
indeed  that  Heaven  was  against  them. 

115.  Preachers  of  Social  Righteousness.  Amos,  though 
not  a  priest  or  a  prophet  but  only  a  herdsman,  felt  a  divine 
call  to  go  to  Bethel  at  the  time  of  a  great  national  festival 
and  cry  out  against  all  this  wickedness.  He  denounced  the 
rich  and  ruling  classes,  the  grafters  who  used  public  office 
for  private  gain.  He  fearlessly  proclaimed  that  the  first 
duty  of  rulers  is  to  protect  the  rights  of  the  poor  and  de- 
fenseless; that  riches  gained  by  exploiting  the  poor  are  a 
disgrace  and  a  menace;  and  that  God  cannot  be  bribed  to 
wink  at  evil,  even  by  the  richest  sacrifices.  Democracy, 
brotherhood,  and  the  religion  of  kindness  are  his  great 
teachings.  These  are  all  the  greater  because  in  Amos  they 
are  clearly  heard  for  the  first  time  in  Hebrew,  if  not  in  world 
history. 

It  seems  as  if  the  genius  of  the  Hebrew  people,  balked  in 
its  attempt  to  realize  a  true  democracy  in  the  forms  of  gov- 
ernment, had  now  burst  out  in  the  moral  realm.  All  its 
pent-up  passion  for  justice  and  brotherhood,  finding  at  last 
a  mouthpiece  in  Amos,  leaped  at  once  to  revolutionary  ex- 
pression and  demanded  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  the  God  of 
righteousness,  a  full  recognition  of  its  claims.  There  is  no 
more  dramatic  passage  in  literature  than  the  words  of  Je- 
hovah as  uttered  by  Amos  (521"24): 

"  I  hate,  I  despise  your  feasts,  and  I  will  take  no  delight 
in  your  solemn  assemblies.  Even  though  you  offer  me  your 
burnt-offerings  and  cereal-offerings,  I  will  not  accept  them; 
neither  will  I  regard  the  peace-offerings  of  your  fat  beasts. 
Take  away  from  me  the  noise  of  your  songs;   for  I  will  not 


PREACHERS  OF  SOCIAL  RIGHTEOUSNESS 


189 


hear  the  melody  of  your  viols.     But  let  justice  roll  down  as 
waters,  and  righteousness  as  a  mighty  stream." 

Besides  marking  the  high-tide  of  literary  art,  this  passage 
proclaims  the  revolutionary  truth  that  God  is  on  the  side 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    92— BETHEL 

One  of  the  most  ancient  Amorite  shrines,  taken  over  by  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  29") 
and  used  especially  by  Jeroboam  I  and  his  successors  (I  Kings  1228-33). 
Why  should  such  a  site  be  chosen  for  a  sanctuary?  Notice  the  terraced 
hills,  suggesting  to  the  sleeping  Jacob  the  staircase  to  heaven  (Gen.  2811-"). 
What  kinds  of  trees?  The  tower  is  the  guest-room  in  the  house  of  the 
sheik,  or  head-man  of  Bethel.     Bethel  stands  2,890  feet  above  the  sea. 


of  the  downtrodden  and  the  poor,  and  that  any  religion 
which  does  not  concern  itself  with  the  welfare  of  one's  fel- 
lows is  no  religion  at  all.  This  is  a  great  discovery,  one  that 
outranks  any  discovery  or  invention  in  the  realm  of  science 
in  its  possible  effect  upon  human  civilization.  In  thirty 
centuries  we  have  not  yet  lived  up  to  it;  it  still  stands  as  a 
protest  against  most  of  our  civic  and  social  institutions,  and 
as  a  great  ideal  yet  to  be  attained. 


190  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

This  same  period  produced  a  second  prophet  who  ranks 
even  above  Amos  in  insight  and  moral  power.  Hosea,  a 
native  of  northern  Israel  and  a  thorough  patriot,  boldly 
proclaimed  that  the  social  life  of  the  nation  was  corrupt  and 
that  Jehovah  had  no  choice  but  to  punish.  His  denuncia- 
tion is  specific  and  terrible  (Hos.  41"3) : 

"  Hear  the  word  of  Jehovah,  O  Israelites, 
For  he  has  a  charge  against  the  inhabitants  of  the 

land; 
For  there  is  no  fidelity  nor  true  love, 
Nor  knowledge  of  God  in  the  land, 
But  perjury,  lying,  and  murder, 
Stealing,  adultery,  and  deeds  of  violence, 
And  acts  of  bloodshed  follow  in  quick  succession. 
Therefore  the  land  mourns, 
And  all  its  inhabitants  languish." 

But  Hosea's  positive  teaching  shows  the  greatness  of  his 
genius.  He  taught  that  the  only  corrective  for  such  crimes 
is  love — not  a  sentiment  or  an  emotion  but  a  principle  of 
action;  love  that  shows  itself  in  righteousness,  justice,  kind- 
ness, fidelity.  Finding  in  his  own  heart  the  presence  of 
such  love  even  toward  his  unfaithful  wife,  he  reached  the 
bold  conclusion  that  God  must  love  even  while  he  pun- 
ishes faithless  Israel.  God's  justice  and  his  love  thus  be- 
come the  great  arguments  why  men  should  love  and  be  just. 
Hosea  anticipated  by  eight  centuries  the  teaching  of  Jesus 
that  love  to  God  and  love  to  man  are  essential  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  perfect  society.  His  teaching  is  only  another  ex- 
pression of  the  democratic  spirit  that  all  along  had  under- 
lain Hebrew  society;  for  we  know  now  what  havoc  the 
principle  of  love  always  works  with  distinctions  of  caste, 
with  aristocracies,  oligarchies,  plutocracies,  and  other 
manifestations  of  selfish  individualism.  Love  is  as  danger- 
ous to  vested  privilege  as  T  N  T  powder. 


PREACHERS  OF  SOCIAL  RIGHTEOUSNESS      191 

It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  all  the  sufferings  the 
Hebrew  nation  endured  from  outward  oppression  and  in- 
ward sin  were  not  too  great  a  price  to  pay  for  these  sublime 
ideals  that  have  permanently  enriched  mankind. 


fj 


XVII 
THE  COLLAPSE  OF  THE  NORTHERN  STATE 

ISRAEL 

Zcchariah  (745),  son  of  Jeroboam.     Reigned  but  six  months. 

Assassinated  by  Shallum. 
Shallum  (745).     Reigned  but  one  month.     Assassinated  by 

Menahem. 
Menahem  (745-736).     Paid  tribute  to  Assyria. 
Pckahiah  (736-735),  son  of  Menahem. 
Pekah  (735-732).     Assassinated  Pekahiah;  himself  deposed  and 

killed. 
Hoshea  (732-722). 

JUDAH 

Jot  ham  (749-735),  son  of  Uzziah. 
Ahaz  (735-720),  son  of  Jotham. 

116.  The  Reign  of  Anarchy.  In  their  arraignment  of 
Israel  Amos  and  Hosea  beheld  an  ominous  background:  they 
saw  Assyria  with  sword  in  hand  waiting  for  Jehovah's 
command  to  punish  faithless  Israel.  Never  was  there 
greater  opportunity  for  a  strong  monarch  to  plunder  a 
rich  and  helpless  country,  for  at  the  death  of  Jeroboam  II 
anarchy  broke  loose.  In  fourteen  years  there  were  six 
kings  in  Israel,  four  of  whom  were  assassinated  and  one 
captured  in  battle,  while  only  one  was  succeeded  by  a  son. 

117.  Menahem's  Rule.  In  the  year  Menahem  seized  the 
throne  (745)  there  came  to  the  throne  of  Assyria  the  most 
able  conqueror  and  organizer  that  empire  had  yet  pro- 
duced,  Tiglath-pileser  IV.     The  conditions  in    Israel  were 

1C2 


MENAHEM'S  RULE  193 

too  tempting  to  be  resisted.  In  738  he  therefore  invaded 
Palestine.  Menahem  was  evidently  having  difficulty  in 
managing  chaotic  Israel.  Rather  than  offer  resistance,  he 
hastened  to  pay  Tiglath-pileser  an  enormous  tribute,  in 
return  for  which  Tiglath  helped  him  retain  his  throne 
against  his  enemies.  The  Assyrian  must  have  smiled  as  he 
pocketed  his  "easy  money" — about  $2,000,000  in  metal,  in 
purchasing  power  equal  to  $30,000,000  to-day.  And  Mena- 
hem smiled  sardonically  as  he  turned  upon  his  rich  and  re- 
bellious fellow  countrymen  and  recouped  himself  at  their 
expense  !  He  took  50  shekels  from  every  landed  proprietor 
— and  there  were  60,000  of  them.  The  Assyrian  bribe  en- 
abled Menahem  to  keep  his  crown  for  ten  years  and  hand  it 
on  to  his  son,  Pekahiah. 

But  the  party  in  Israel  that  opposed  the  paying  of  tribute 
to  Assyria  decided  to  get  rid  of  Pekahiah,  the  Assyrian 
vassal-king,  and  so  assassinated  him.  Pekah,  a  military 
man,  did  the  bloody  work  for  them  and  was  rewarded  with 
the  crown. 

118.  The  Puppet  Kings  of  Judah.  Jotham,  who  had  been 
regent  in  Judah  for  eleven  years  during  his  father's  illness, 
now  became  sole  ruler.  He  appears  to  have  been  an  able 
and  pious  king.  According  to  a  late  tradition  he  strengthened 
Jerusalem,  built  fortresses  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
subdued  Ammon  which  had  revolted  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  for  three  years  collected  therefrom  a  handsome 
annual  tribute,  $200,000  in  silver  (equal  to  $3,000,000  to- 
day), 110,000  bushels  of  wheat  and  the  same  of  barley. 

For  some  unaccountable  reason  his  son  Ahaz  broke  with 
the  religion  of  his  fathers  and  became  an  out-and-out  idol- 
ater. He  introduced  into  Judah  the  heathen  rite  of  child- 
sacrifice.  He  was  a  degenerate  who  was  unable  to  rule  or 
to  take  advice.  The  surrounding  nations  proceeded  to  take 
advantage  of  him.  Edom  attacked  him  on  the  south,  the 
Philistines  recaptured  all  their  cities  which  Amaziah  had 
taken,  and  Israel  under  Pekah  and    Damascus  under  Rezin 


194 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


Fig.  93— SARGON  AND  HIS  VIZIER 

From  the  palace  at  Khorsabad ;  now  in  the 
Louvre.  King's  costume:  Crown  of 
cloth  embroidered  and  ornamented 
with  rosettes,  and  culminating  in  a 
peak.  Underdress  reaching  from  neck 
to  ankles,  edged  with  a  fringe  of  tas- 
sels and  a  fourfold  border  of  pearls; 
the  skirt  is  richly  patterned.  Mantle 
with  broad  fringe  embroidered  with 
rosettes.  Sandals  that  protect  the 
heels  only.  Toe-rings.  Earrings. 
Large  rosett^bracelets  on  the  wrists 
and  spiral  bracelets  above  the  elbow. 
Sword  with  heavily  ornamented  han- 
dle and  scabbard.  Note  the  heavy 
beard  and  hair,  with  curls  natural 
or  artificial. 

Vizier's  costume:  A  band  about  the  hair, 
undergarment  like  the  king's  bub 
plainer,  overgarment  that  hangs  from 
one  shoulder  leaving  the  right  arm  free, 
jewels  and  hair  like  the  king. 


resorted  to  violent  means 
to  induce  him  to  join  a 
new  league  against  As- 
syria. 

Ahaz,  who  was  secretly 
planning  to  throw  him- 
self into  the  hands  of  As- 
syria, refused  their  de- 
mands, and  these  two 
firebrands  from  the  north 
invaded  his  country. 
The  result  was  little  less 
than  a  catastrophe  for 
Judah.  Rezin  and  Pekah, 
according  to  the  late  tra- 
dition in  II  Chronicles, 
killed  or  enslaved  great 
numbers  and  captured 
Elath,  the  Red  Sea  port. 
Ahaz  was  thoroughly 
frightened  and  sent  a 
distress  call  to  Tiglath- 
pileser,  promising  trib- 
ute and  vassalage  if  he 
would  pull  Pekah  and 
Rezin  off  his  back.  The 
prophet  Isaiah  suspected 
that  something  of  this 
kind  would  happen,  met 
the  king  as  he  was  in- 
specting the  water-sup- 
ply of  Jerusalem,  and 
promised  him  that  Je- 
hovah would  save  him  if 
he  would  only  rely  on  him 
and  not  needlessly  sacri- 


THE  PUPPET  KINGS 


195 


fice  his  country's  independence.     But  Ahaz  had  not  much 
respect  for  Jehovah;   besides,   the   messengers  had   already 
gone  to  the  Assyrian  king  and  much  silver  and  gold  had 
gone  with  them. 
Tiglath-pileser  was  doubtless  pleased  to  get  pay  for  what 


Fig.    94— SARGON'S    PALACE,    RESTORED 

Erected  at  Khorsabad,  several  miles  above  Nineveh,  in  706  b.c.  Probably 
this  was  the  most  magnificent  palace  ever  built,  covering  as  it  did  more 
than  twenty-five  acres.  The  rooms  were  of  immense  size,  the  walls 
wainscoted  with  sculptured  alabaster  slabs,  the  entrances  guarded  by 
colossi.  It  was  discovered  by  M.  Botta,  French  consul  to  Mosul,  in  1842, 
and  excavated  by  the  French  government. 

The  wall  extending  from  the  palace  forms  one  side  of  the  great  royal  park  a 
mile  square.  Within  the  enclosure  were  lakes  and  pleasure-houses.  The 
terraced  pyramid  is  a  temple  for  sun-worship.  Note  the  platform,  46  feet 
high,  on  which  the  palace  rests ;  also  the  inclined  planes  by  which  chariots 
could  mount.  Find  the  main  entrance,  the  Court  of  Honor,  the  Halls 
of  Audience,  the  private  apartments. 


he  had  intended  to  do  at  his  own  expense.  He  came  down 
post-haste  and  with  an  overwhelming  force  (734-733).  Israel 
was  the  first  to  suffer.  He  took  all  the  east- Jordan  territory 
and  all  Galilee  as  far  as  the  southern  border  of  Esdraelon,  and 
carried  away  into  slavery  tens  of  thousands  of  the  inhabitants. 
Turning  to  Damascus,  he  crushed  and  absorbed  that  realm. 


196  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

From  this  time  on  the  Aramean  kingdom  disappears  and 
Damascus  is  a  provincial  Assyrian  city. 

After  the  defeat  of  Pekah  and  Rezin,  Ahaz  hurried  to  Da- 
mascus, where  Tiglath-pileser  had  made  a  temporary  head- 
quarters, and  proceeded  to  fawn  on  the  conqueror  with  ab- 
ject servility.  At  the  same  time  his  observing  eye  took  in 
an  altar  of  new  pattern.  Being  an  expert  in  matters  of  cere- 
monial worship,  he  had  drawings  made  of  it,  which  he  sent 
to  Jerusalem  with  instructions  to  duplicate  it  for  the  temple. 
When  he  returned  home  he  dedicated  the  new  altar  per- 
sonally, and  cast  Jehovah  entirely  out  of  his  own  shrine. 
The  gods  of  Assyria  were  good  enough  for  him  ! 

Nevertheless,  the  Assyrian  favor  was  an  expensive  luxury. 
To  pay  the  annual  tribute  Ahaz  was  at  last  forced  even  to 
break  up  the  brass  furnishings  that  Solomon  had  made  for 
the  temple.  True  patriots  like  Micah  and  Isaiah  must 
have  shed  bitter  tears  as  they  saw  Jehovah  dethroned  and 
their  king  a  bankrupt  vassal.  But  they  had  to  weep  in 
secret.  Ahaz  had  no  patience  with  Jehovah-worshippers  and 
patriots. 

119.  The  Last  King  of  Northern  Israel.  The  leading  men 
of  Israel,  seeing  now  that  they  had  made  a  mistake,  mur- 
dered their  king  Pekah  who  had  gotten  them  into  this 
trouble.  Hoshea  was  their  tool.  He  promised  Tiglath- 
pileser  that  he  would  be  loyal,  and  the  Assyrian  let  him  rule 
over  the  shrunken  kingdom.  This  favor  cost  him  $300,000 
in  gold  and  $2,000,000  in  silver— equal  to  $35,000,000  to- 
day! 

Hoshea's  loyalty,  however,  had  a  time  limit.  When 
Tiglath-pileser  died  Hoshea  promptly  intrigued  with  Egypt, 
which  in  the  degenerate  days  from  Shishak  to  the  present 
crisis  had  pretty  effectively  kept  out  of  world  politics. 
Backed  by  Egypt's  promises,  Hoshea  refused  tribute  to 
Assyria;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  he  had  no  money  to  pay. 
The  new  king,  Shalmaneser  IV,  forthwith  invaded  Israel, 
defeated   the    rebel's  little    army,   and  took    Hoshea    pris- 


THE   LAST  KING  OF  ISRAEL  197 

oner.  Marching  thence  to  Samaria  he  besieged  it,  de- 
termining to  put  an  end  forever  to  all  trouble  from  this 
quarter.  Thanks  to  Omri's  skilful  choice  of  its  site,  the 
city  held  out  for  three  years.      Shalmaneser  died  before   it 


Fig.  95— COLOSSUS  FROM  SARGON'S  PALACE 

These  composite  creatures,  usually  of  gigantic  size,  guarded  the  entrances  of 
the  palace.  They  represent  supernatural  beings  and  were  supposed  to 
keep  away  evil  spirits.  The  elements  of  which  they  are  composed  probably 
stand  for  qualities  or  functions.  For  what  would  the  human  head  stand  ? 
the  wings?   the  lion's  body  ?     How  many  legs  has  the  creature,  and  why ? 

fell,  and  his  son  Sargon  II  completed  the  conquest  (722 
B.C.).  The  conqueror  deported  over  27,000  of  its  inhabi- 
tants, all  of  the  wealthy  or  aristocratic  class  and  any  who 
he  felt  might  make  trouble.  These  he  scattered  in  northern 
Mesopotamia  and  Media,  in  accordance  with  the  Assyrian 
policy  of  conquest.  The  partly  depopulated  land  of  Israel 
was    refilled    with    colonists    from    abroad,    especially    from 


198  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

northern  Syria  and  Babylonia.  Thus  the  national  spirit 
was  completely  broken  and  the  area  of  the  northern  king- 
dom was  absorbed  into  the  Assyrian  empire.  The  kingdom 
of  Israel  became  the  Ten  Lost  Tribes,  not  that  they  were 


Fig.    96— HEBREW    CAPTIVES 

Brought  in  under  guard  to  do  homage  to  the  conqueror. 

lost  in  the  sense  of  being  misplaced  and  forgotten;  they 
merged  into  the  life  of  other  races  and  lost  their  identity. 
They  dissolved  like  salt  in  water. 

120.  The  Significance  of  Israel's  Fall.  The  fall  of  Israel 
made  a  profound  impression  upon  the  Hebrews  who  sur- 
vived. Naturally  they  sought  for  a  cause,  and  the  religious 
ones,  who  held  the  idea  that  Jehovah  was  primarily  a  re- 
warder  of  goodness  and  a  punisher  of  evil,  saw  in  the  catas- 
trophe a  crowning  proof  that  Israel  had  been  bad.  Accord- 
ing to  the  priestly  writers  of  the  biblical  narratives,  that 
badness  consisted  in  infidelity  to  Jehovah.  "Idolatry," 
said  they,  "brings  catastrophe;  catastrophe  comes  only  as 
a  result  of  idolatry."  But  according  to  the  prophets, 
Israel's, real  guilt  was  the  injustice  and  oppression  wrought 
by  the  rich  on  the  poor  and  other  kindred  social  sins.  Both 
sets  of  interpreters  were  partly  right  and  partly  wrong. 
The  punishment   did   not   come   wholly  in   consequence   of 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  ISRAEL'S  FALL  199 

badness  nor  was  it  a  piece  of  vengeance  on  Jehovah's  part. 
We  believe  to-day  that  God  works  through  the  channels  of 
law,  whether  physical,  economic,  social,  or  moral;  and  as 
we  look  at  the  fate  of  Belgium  and  France,  for  example,  in 
the  Great  War,  we  are  quite  sure  that  all  catastrophes  are 
not  the  consequence  of  the  victim's  sins.  Two  different 
forces  were  at  work  here  in  two  different  realms  of  life,  ac- 
complishing two  different  results.  Israel  fell  because  her 
wealth  excited  the  greed  of  Assyria,  because  she  lay  in  the 
path  of  Assyria's  conquering  ambition;  these  were  eco- 
nomic and  political  reasons  that  had  no  relation  to  Israel's 
deserts.  But  Israel  fell  in  a  deeper  and  more  significant 
way — had,  indeed,  been  falling  for  years  before  the  final 
crash.  Greed,  materialism,  and  lust  had  destroyed  na- 
tional and  individual  character  and  substituted  debasing 
Canaanite  forms  of  worship  for  the  ethical  worship  of  Je- 
hovah; for  that  reason  her  fall  meant  extinction.  When  the 
great  catastrophe  came,  Israel  had  nothing  worth  saving — 
not  an  ideal  nor  a  God.  Assyria  destroyed  her  political 
identity,  but  sin  had  already  destroyed  her  soul. 

T     t£w   HTT4    J! 

D.P.    Shar     -     gi    -    na 

S argon. 

Fig.    97 

D.P.  means  Determinative  Prefix,  showing  that  a  name  is  to  follow. 
The  name  forms  a  sentence,  "God  has  established  the  king." 
Sargon  reigned  over  Assyria,  722-705  b.c.  He  conquered  Israel  (722  B.C.), 
defeated  So  of  Egypt  in  league  with  the  Philistines  (720  b.c),  conquered 
Ashdod  in  Philistia  (711  b.c;  Isaiah  201)  and  Merodach-baladan  who  in- 
trigued with  Hezekiah  (II  Kings  20l2~13).  His  son  Sennacherib  succeeded 
him. 


XVIII 
JUDAH'S  NARROW  ESCAPE 

Hezekiah  (720-692),  son  of  Ahaz. 

121.  The  Shadow  of  Assyria.  The  great  calamity  that 
had  wiped  out  the  kingdom  of  Israel  affected  all  the  king- 
doms of  the  west.  Judah  seemed  to  herself  to  be  a  brand 
plucked  from  the  burning.  The  youthful  king,  Hezekiah, 
who  now  came  to  the  throne  knew  himself  to  be  no  match 
for  the  great  Assyrian,  and  he  wisely  attempted  nothing. 
His  only  hope  lay  in  absolute  submission  to  the  dread  over- 
lord whose  aid  his  father  Ahaz  had  invoked  and  who  was 
now  claiming  all  the  world  in  vassalage  and  nearly  making 
good  his  claim.  For  nine  years  Hezekiah  paid  tribute  faith- 
fully. He  was  therefore  untouched  in  720  when  Sargon  put 
down  the  revolt  of  the  rebellious  princes  of  the  West-land, 
and  at  Raphia  on  the  Egyptian  border  punished  Egypt  for 
meddling  with  politics  in  general  and  Hoshea  in  particular. 

What  Hezekiah  did  in  these  nine  years  is  partly  a  matter 
of  conjecture.  Being  by  nature  religious,  and  perhaps  hav- 
ing been  tutored  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  he  may  well  have 
begun  some  of  those  reforms  that  toward  the  close  of  his 
reign  he  carried  out  with  great  thoroughness.  It  was  doubt- 
less in  this  period  also  that  he  caused  the  tunnel  to  be  dug 
from  the  spring  Gihon,  east  of  the  City  of  David,  through 
the  hill  to  a  reservoir  called  Siloam  on  the  west  side  of 
David's  city  but  within  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  (See  Fig. 
98.)  With  an  eye  to  future  needs  he  also  strengthened  the 
national   defense,    repaired   the    walls   and   fortifications    of 

200 


THE  SHADOW  OF  ASSYRIA 


201 


Jerusalem,  fitted  up  ar- 
senals, built  cities,  and 
encouraged  trade  and  ag- 
riculture through  the 
erection  of  shelters  for 
sheep  and  cattle  and  of 
storehouses  for  produce. 
He  followed  in  all  these 
things  the  example  of  his 
great-grandfather  Uzzi- 
ah.  The  significant 
events  of  his  reign,  how- 
ever, grew  out  of  his  re- 
lations with  Assyria  and 
the  prophet  Isaiah. 

122.  Hezekiah  a  Near- 
Rebel.  Trouble  began 
about  the  year  711,  when 
Egypt  succeeded  at  last 
in  stirring  up  the  Philis- 
tine cities  to  a  revolt. 
Shabaka,  an  Ethiopian 
king,  had  managed  to  get 
possession  of  Egypt,  and 
now  his  ambition  ex- 
panded to  take  in  west- 
ern Asia,  or  at  least  to 
form  a  series  of  inde- 
pendent buffer  states  be- 
tween himself  and  Assy- 
ria. The  time  seemed 
favorable.  A  certain 
Merodach-baladan,  who 
had  risen  to  power  in  a 
small  Chaldean  state  at 
the  head  of  the  Persian 


Fig.  98— THE  SILOAM  TUNNEL 
Be  careful  not  to  confuse  the  roads,  which 
run  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  with 
the  tunnel  that  is  cut  beneath  them. 
The  workmen  began  cutting  at  both 
ends  and  met  in  the  middle.  Notice 
the  uncertainty  of  the  engineers  as  the 
two  parties  of  excavators  neared  each 
other. 
This  is  probably  the  conduit  constructed 
by  Hezekiah  in  anticipation  of  Sen- 
nacherib's invasion  (II  Kings  2020; 
II  Chron.  32  '-<).  It  is  1,700  feet  long 
and  is  six  feet  high.  It  brought  the 
waters  of  Gihon  (the  Virgin's  fountain) , 
which  lay  outside  the  city  walls,  to  a 
pool  within  the  walls,  so  that  the  in- 
habitants could,  in  case  of  siege,  fill 
their  water-jars  without  exposing 
themselves. 
The  church  shown  above  just  north  of  the 
pool  was  built  about  450  a.d.  by  the 
empress  Eudocia. 


202  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Gulf,  had  defeated  Sargon  some  years  before,  had  seized 
Babylon,  and  was  now  holding  it  against  all  comers  as  an 
independent  kingdom.  His  success  argued  well  for  other 
attempts.  Shabaka  therefore  sent  out  his  agents  to  stir  up 
the  little  nations.  He  finally  formed  a  league  in  which  were 
Ashdod,  Gath,  Moab,  Edom,  and  Judah.  Fortunately  the 
league  came  to  nothing.  Ashdod  did  indeed  revolt,  but 
Sargon  pounced  upon  it  with  such  a  large  army  and  so 
swiftly  that  the  little  allies  all  beat  to  cover  and  pretended 
they  had  not  been  in  the  plot  at  all.  Egypt  could  only 
fume  and  keep  up  the  plotting. 

123.  Isaiah's  Warning.  Hezekiah  had  been  nearly  caught 
by  this  net  of  intrigue,  but  his  escape  did  not  teach  him 
wisdom.  The  coquetting  with  Egypt  kept  on.  Now  for 
the  first  time  in  ten  years  the  prophet  Isaiah  suddenly  be- 
came active.  He  set  himself  steadfastly  to  hold  his  king  true 
to  his  vassalage  and  thwart  the  intrigues  of  the  Egyptian 
envoys.  Isaiah  was  statesman  enough  to  see  that  Egypt 
was  a  broken  reed  and  that  in  all  of  this  plotting  Egypt  had 
a  purely  selfish  object  in  view.  The  method  of  agitation  he 
adopted  we  should  call  sensational.  He  took  off  his  shoes 
and  his  prophetic  mantle  of  sackcloth,  and  in  this  con- 
dition went  about  the  streets  of  Jerusalem.  This  spectacular 
campaign  of  education  he  continued  for  three  years,  in 
summer's  heat  and  winter's  cold,  while  he  took  pains  to 
publish  the  meaning  of  it  everywhere:  "Thus  saith  Jehovah, 
As  my  servant  Isaiah  has  walked  unfrocked  and  barefoot 
three  years  for  a  sign  and  a  portent  against  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia,  so  shall  the  king  of  Assyria  lead  away  the  captives 
of  Egypt  and  the  exiles  of  Ethiopia,  young  and  old,  stripped 
and  barefoot."  This  was  nothing  less  than  an  appeal  to 
the  people  over  the  heads  of  the  king  and  his  court,  over 
Shebna  the  grand  vizier  and  his  pro-Egyptian  party.  It 
was  an  attempt  to  form  a  public  sentiment  so  strong  that 
the  men  in  power  must  yield  to  it,  a  sentiment  against  put- 
ting any  trust  in  the  flattering  promises  of  a  big,  blustering 


ISAIAH'S  WARNING  203 

country,  once  powerful  but  now  utterly  incapable  of  de- 
fending itself  against  Assyria,  to  say  nothing  of  delivering 
Judah. 

This  protest  of  Isaiah's  was  measurably  successful. 
While  it  did  not  wholly  stop  the  intriguing,  it  kept  Hezekiah 
from  taking  any  positive  step  not  only  in  the  Philistine  re- 


Fig.    99— THE    SILOAM    INSCRIPTION 

Carved  by  Hezekiah's  workmen  near  the  Siloam  end  of  the  tunnel  (see  Fig.  98). 
It  is  the  oldest  Israelitish  inscription  of  any  length  that  has  come  down 
to  us.  It  was  discovered  in  1880  by  the  bright  eyes  of  an  English  boy, 
a  missionary's  son,  and  reported  to  the  authorities.  The  text  was  after- 
ward cut  out  by  a  Greek  villain  who  hoped  to  profit  by  it ;  but  he  was 
punished.     It  is  now  preserved  in  the  museum  at  Constantinople. 

volt  of  711  but  also  in  the  more  favorable  opportunity  of 
710.  In  that  year  Sargon  had  the  fight  of  his  life  with 
Merodach-baladan,  a  fight  that  was  nothing  less  than  a 
contest  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  world  between  Assyria 
and  Babylon.  Assyria  won,  and  Merodach-baladan  dis- 
appeared for  a  time.  In  this  crisis  Judah  remained  true  to 
her  overlord.  This  much,  at  least,  Isaiah  had  accomplished. 
124.  Hezekiah's  Sickness  and  World  Politics.  The 
dreaded  Sargon  was  murdered  in  705  by  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor Sennacherib.  Immediately  his  empire  burst  asunder 
and  Sennacherib  had  to  prove  his  fitness  to  rule  by  bringing 
the  separate  pieces  again  under  his  sway.  It  took  him  four 
years,  but  he  did  it.  He  first  gave  attention  to  Babylon,  a 
province  so  great  that  only  the  turn  of  a  hand  might  de- 


204  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

termine  whether  it  or  Assyria  should  rule  the  world.  Mero- 
dach-baladan  was  again  attempting  to  establish  himself 
there.  Until  Sennacherib  had  settled  with  him  he  could 
not  attend  to  western  Asia.  In  the  meantime  throughout 
the  West-land  there  was  a  mighty  "trembling  in  the  tents 

Fig.    100 — TEXT    OF    THE    SILOAM    INSCRIPTION     (Fig.    99) 

"The  tunnel  [is  completed].  And  this  is  the  story  of  the  boring  through: 
While  yet  they  plied  the  pick,  each  toward  his  fellow,  and  while  yet  there 
were  three  cubits  to  be  bored  through,  there  was  heard  the  voice  of  one 
calling  to  another,  for  there  was  a  crevice  in  the  rock  on  the  right  hand. 
And  on  the  day  of  the  boring  through,  the  stone-cutters  struck,  each  to 
meet  his  fellow,  pick  upon  pick ;  and  the  waters  flowed  from  the  source  to 
the  pool  for  a  thousand  and  two  hundred  cubits,  and  a  hundred  cubits 
was  the  height  of  the  rock  above  the  heads  of  the  stone-cutters." 

of  Kedar,"  an  excitement  of  intrigue,  embassies  hurrying 
from  state  to  state,  and  a  common  rising  against  the  com- 
mon oppressor.  From  far-off  Ethiopia  came  the  tall,  shin- 
ing ones  to  tempt  Hezekiah  into  their  league  in  which  the 
Ethiopian  king  hoped  to  be  chief.  From  Egypt  also  and 
Edom  and  Philistia  they  came,  all  making  Jerusalem  their 
rendezvous  because  it  was  the  one  impregnable  fortress  in 
all  the  rebel  lands.  Here  from  705,  when  Sargon  died,  until 
701,  when  Sennacherib  was  at  last  free  to  deal  with  them, 
was  the  true  centre  of  gravity  of  the  western  revolt.  Heze- 
kiah was  the  king-pin — or  thought  he  was — but  Isaiah  was 
the  true  bulwark  of  his  country's  safety.  Jerusalem  was 
for  the  prophet  as  a  watch-tower  from  which  he  could  sur- 
vey all  the  nations  and  truly  judge  of  the  great  political  and 
moral  forces  that  were  at  work  beneath  the  surface  of  events. 


WORLD  POLITICS  205 

Isaiah  believed  that  Sennacherib  was  destined  to  be  the 
master  of  the  world.  To  the  mind  of  the  prophet  all  of 
these  plottings  and  engineerings  and  revolts  were  the  sheer- 
est folly;  and  he  did  not  hesitate  to  denounce  the  pro- 
Egyptian  party  and  all  of  its  works.  This  was  the  most 
strenuous  period  of  Isaiah's  life. 

In  the  midst  of  this  agitation  Hezekiah  fell  seriously  sick 
with  an  abscess.  Feeling  that  he  was  going  to  die,  he  sent 
for  Isaiah.  The  prophet  saw  the  desperate  nature  of  the 
case  and  told  the  king  that  he  must  die.  This  announce- 
ment threw  Hezekiah  into  an  agony  of  prayer.  He  knew  the 
perilous  times  into  which  he  had  fallen,  and  he  knew  that 
there  was  no  son  to  succeed  him  on  the  throne.  He  begged 
Jehovah  to  spare  him.  Even  while  he  prayed,  word  came 
to  Isaiah  to  return  and  announce  to  Hezekiah  that  his 
prayer  had  been  heard,  and  that  Jehovah  would  also  save 
the  city  from  the  hand  of  Sennacherib.  The  prophet  then 
ordered  a  fig  poultice  laid  on  the  abscess  and  the  cure  be- 
gan. 

This  sickness  and  recovery  were  the  excuse  for  Merodach- 
baladan's  sending  to  Hezekiah  an  embassy  of  sympathy. 
In  reality  the  mission  was  political.  Merodach  was  for  the 
moment  succeeding  in  his  attempt  to  regain  the  throne  of 
Babylon,  and  for  the  space  of  nine  months  held  Sennacherib 
at  bay.  But  he  needed  all  the  help  he  could  get,  and  he 
thought  he  might  be  able  to  distract  Sennacherib's  atten- 
tion if  he  could  push  the  revolt  in  Palestine.  The  scheme 
did  not  work.  Sennacherib  conquered  Babylon  in  704,  and 
Merodach-baladan  dropped  out  of  sight.  But  the  embassy 
gave  Isaiah  a  text  for  a  political  warning  to  Hezekiah. 

"Who  were  these  men?"  asked  the  prophet,  "and  what 
have  they  seen?" 

Hezekiah  confessed  that  they  were  from  Babylon,  and 
that  he  had  showed  them  all  his  treasures  and  his  arsenal. 

"Hear  the  word  of  Jehovah,"  said  the  aged  and  angry 
prophet;  "Behold,  the  days  are  coming  that  all  that  is  in 


200  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

this  house  and  that  which  your  fathers  have  laid  up  in 
store  unto  this  day  shall  be  carried  to  Babylon." 

Isaiah  saw  that  Hezekiah  had  done  two  rash  things;  he  had 
fully  committed  himself  to  the  revolt  against  Assyria,  and 
by  showing  his  resources  he  had  excited  the  greed  of  Baby- 
lon. The  first  brought  swift  vengeance.  The  latter  came 
to  naught;  for  though  a  century  later  Babylon  took  Jeru- 
salem, the  king  was  not  Merodach-baladan  nor  was  the 
event  connected  with  Hezekiah's  foolish  pride.  Isaiah  now 
worked  unsparingly  to  undo  the  folly  of  the  war  party. 
He  knew  full  well  that  Hezekiah  was  only  pulling  chest- 
nuts out  of  the  fire  for  Egypt  and  Babylon,  and  that  dis- 
aster stared  his  country  in  the  face.  He  had  a  religious  basis 
also  for  his  condemnation,  for  to  put  trust  in  princes  meant 
to  fail  to  put  trust  in  Jehovah.  Isaiah  knew  only  too  well 
that  the  official  religion  in  Judah  was  a  farce;  even  the  priests 
at  the  altar  were  drunk  while  they  ministered  and  their 
power  of  vision  was  hopelessly  dulled.  Not  until  they  were 
crushed  by  a  great  calamity  could  they  appreciate  the 
plain  truth  the  prophet  had  spoken  and  be  ready  to  put 
their  faith  in  the  Holy  One  of  Israel. 

125.  On  the  Verge  of  Destruction.  The  day  of  vengeance 
was  now  at  hand.  Sennacherib  had  conquered  Babylon,  had 
suppressed  the  rebels  farther  east  in  Elam,  and  now  he  fell 
like  a  thunderbolt  upon  the  league  that  Egypt  had  gotten  to- 
gether. He  began  with  the  Phoenician  cities.  The  king  of 
Sidon  ran  away;  Tyre  was  shut  up  on  her  island.  Then  he 
struck  Philistia  and  one  by  one  took  her  cities.  Edom  and 
Moab  became  frightened  and  sent  their  submission.  Ekron 
was  next  besieged — for  all  of  the  towns  on  the  plain  had  to 
be  reduced  before  an  army  could  safely  venture  into  the 
mountains  of  Judah.  While  Sennacherib  was  busy  with 
Ekron,  the  very  thing  happened  which  Hezekiah  and  all 
the  league  had  been  trusting  would  happen — Egypt  came 
up  with  an  army.  Sennacherib  relaxed  his  grip  on  Ekron 
for  the  moment  and  turned  upon  the  new  foe.     The  forces 


OX  THE  VERGE  OF  DESTRUCTION 


207 


Fig.    101— CYLINDER    OF    SENNACHERIB 

Six-sided  baked  clay  cylinder  describing  eight  campaigns  of  Sennacherib  frorn 
about  705  to  691  b.c.  It  records  the  defeat  of  Merodach-baladan  and  the 
sack  of  his  city  (Sec.  124),  the  invasion  of  Palestine  and  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem.    Partial  translation: 

"I  drew  nigh  to  Ekron  and  I  slew  the  governors  and  princes  who  had  trans- 
gressed, and  I  hung  upon  stakes  round  about  the  city  their  dead  bodies. 
...  I  brought  their  king  Padi  forth  from  Jerusalem  [Hezekiah  had  evi- 
dently taken  him  prisoner  earlier]  and  I  established  him  upon  his  throne. 
...  I  then  besieged  Hezekiah  of  Judah  who  had  not  submitted  to  my 
yoke,  and  I  captured  forty-six  of  his  strong  cities  and  fortresses  and  in- 
numerable small  cities,  with  the  battering  of  rams  and  the  assault  of  en- 
gines and  the  attack  of  foot-soldiers  and  by  mines  and  breaches.  I 
brought  out  therefrom  200,150  people  both  small  and  great,  male  and 
female;  and  horses,  mules,  asses,  camels,  oxen,  and  innumerable  sheep 
I  counted  as  spoil.  Hezekiah  himself  I  shut  up  like  a  caged  bird  in  Jeru- 
salem, his  royal  city.  I  threw  up  mounds  against  him,  and  I  took  ven- 
geance upon  any  man  who  came  forth  from  his  city.  His  cities  which  I 
had  captured  I  gave  to  the  king  of  Ashdod,  and  Padi  king  of  Ekron.  .  .  . 
The  fear  of  the  majesty  of  my  sovereignty  overwhelmed  Hezekiah,  and  the 
Urbi  and  his  trusty  warriors  whom  he  had  brought  into  his  royal  city  of 
Jerusalem  to  protect  it  deserted.  And  he  despatched  after  me  his  mes- 
senger to  my  royal  city  Nineveh  to  pay  tribute  and  to  make  submission 
with  thirty  talents  of  gold,  eight  hundred  talents  of  silver,  precious  stones, 
eye-paint,  ivory  couches  and  thrones,  hides  and  tusks,  precious  woods,  and 
divers  objects,  a  heavy  treasure,  together  with  his  daughters  and  the 
women  of  his  palace,  and  male  and  female  musicians." 


208  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

met  at  Eltekeh,  and  Egypt  was  beaten.  With  a  crash 
down  went  the  hopes  of  Hezekiah  and  all  who  leaned  on  that 
"broken  reed."  Jerusalem  was  in  a  panic,  and  the  panic 
grew  as  the  fires  of  blazing  cities  drew  nearer  and  the  fugi- 
tives from  the  fast-falling  Judean  towns  poured  into  the 
capital.  With  feverish  haste  the  engineers  put  Jerusalem 
into  a  state  of  defense.  But  when  the  Assyrian  soldiers 
actually  appeared  before  the  walls  all  courage  failed;  those 
who  had  brought  on  this  calamity  by  their  persistent  clamor 
for  rebellion  fled  from  the  city,  and  Hezekiah  was  forced  to 
play  his  last  desperate  card — abject  submission  and  an 
enormous  indemnity.  He  stripped  his  treasury,  his  palace, 
the  temple,  he  even  took  off  the  gold  from  the  doors  and 
pillars  of  the  house  of  Jehovah.  This,  with  his  most  humble 
apologies,  was  sent  to  Sennacherib  at  Lachish.  It  was  a 
fair  sum  of  money— 30  talents  of  gold  and  300  talents  of  sil- 
ver (Sennacherib  says  800),  equivalent  in  purchasing  power 
to-day  of  $22,800,000.  And  besides,  Hezekiah's  own  daugh- 
ters and  various  others  of  his  household  had  to  go  to  swell 
the  conqueror's  harem  at  Nineveh.  Sennacherib  sent  as- 
surances that  the  city  should  be  spared,  and  withdrew  his 
army.  Hezekiah  had  thus  saved  his  crown  and  his  city,  but 
practically  nothing  else.  His  former  territory  was  divided 
among  Sennacherib's  Philistine  vassals. 

126.  Isaiah's  Vindication.  This  was  the  hour  of  Isaiah's 
victory.  Through  all  the  conflict  of  parties  and  the  clash 
of  world-powers  and  the  stress  of  invasions  he  alone  had 
seen  facts  as  they  were  and  had  advocated  in  vain  the  one 
policy  that  would  have  brought  deliverance.  He  had 
labored  for  more  than  thirty  years  to  keep  Judah  true  to 
her  allegiance,  and  when  Judah  had  revolted,  trusting  in 
Egypt,  he  had  proclaimed  swift  punishment.  All  this  had 
now  been  accomplished.  The  prophet  had  proved  his  right 
to  be  called  a  statesman  and  a  watchman  of  Jehovah. 
But  what  booted  it?  His  country  was  laid  waste,  and  only 
the  cowed  and  humiliated  Jerusalem  was  left,  like  a  booth 


ISAIAH'S  VINDICATION  209 

in  a  vineyard.  It  was  time  now  to  bind  up  the  wounds 
and  to  re-establish  on  true  foundations  the  faith  of  a  people 
in  the  God  that  they  had  abandoned.  That  was  Isaiah's 
next  task. 


XIX 

THE  DEMAND  FOR  CLEAN  POLITICS  AND 
RELIGION 

127.  Accumulated  Rubbish.  Before  we  recount  the  re- 
form measures  undertaken  by  Hezekiah  and  the  prophets 
it  is  well  to  examine  the  moral  and  religious  conditions  that 
made  such  a  reform  necessary.  We  have  already  outlined 
the  state  of  affairs  in  Israel  in  the  days  of  Amos  and  Hosea. 
(See.  114.)  They  were  practically  the  same  in  Judah  at  the 
time  of  LTzziah's  death,  when  Isaiah  began  his  preaching. 
Under  Uzziah's  successors  things  became  worse.  Ahaz,  as 
we  have  seen  (Sec.  118)  became  an  out-and-out  idolater. 
He  introduced  all  kinds  of  curiosities  into  his  museum  of 
religions  at  Jerusalem,  and  ended  with  the  practical  ejec- 
tion of  Jehovah  from  his  own  temple.  All  of  this  had  a 
debasing  effect  upon  popular  religion  and  morals.  When 
Hezekiah  came  to  the  throne  there  was  some  attempt  at 
reform,  for  he  had  a  deeply  religious  nature  and  no  doubt 
through  early  contact  with  Isaiah,  who  was  perhaps  related 
to  the  royal  house,  had  been  trained  in  the  faith  of  his  an- 
cestors. But  the  reforms  had  not  gone  very  deep,  and  the 
ideas  that  underlay  the  ordinary  religion  of  the  common 
folk  looked  more  like  magic  or  atheism  than  they  did  like 
religion.  In  the  prophecies  of  Micah  and  Isaiah  we  get  pic- 
tures that  are  really  cross-sections  of  the  whole  structure  of 
Hebrew  social  life  and  thought.  Conditions  in  the  year 
701  B.C.  may  be  thus  summarized: 

Rulers. — Micah  and  Isaiah  both  call  them  cannibals,  merci- 
lessly  eating  the   people  whom   they   should  have  pro- 
tected; haters  of  good  and  lovers  of  evil. 
210 


ACCUMULATED   RUBBISH 


211 


Judges  and  Priests. — The  majority  are  corrupt  and  mercenary; 
full  of  hypocrisy,  uttering  cant  about  Jehovah's  care  for 
them  even  while  they  plunder  the  poor.  Graft  is  writ- 
ten all  over  Judah's  public  life. 

The  Wealthy. — Lust  for  money  and  power  had  utterly  de- 
stroyed the  ancient  manhood  of  Israel.  There  was  no 
longer  any  broth-         ,  ,  t 

ill 


erhood;  love  of 
country  had  be- 
come mercenary 
patriotism.  The 
one  satisfaction  in 
life  was  to  get  and 
to  hoard.  He 
was  the  best  man 
who  could  steal 
most  and  still  keep 
within  the  law. 
Class  Legislation.— -Laws 
were  made  for 
the  benefit  of  the 
rich.  Particularly 
they  favored  the 
acquisition  of  real 
estate  contrary  to 
the   old    customs 


Fig.    102— EGYPTIAN    AMULETS 

1.  Two  fingers  (obsidian)  used  in  the  ceremony 
of  "opening  the  mouth  '  of  a  mummy. 
2.  Builder's  square.  3.  The  "Ankh," 
a  symbol  of  life.  4.  The  "backbone  of 
Osiris,'*  giving  the  wearer  strength  to  rise 
after  death.  5.  A  head-rest  supposed  to 
"lift  up  the  head  "  in  the  other  world.  6. 
An  Osiris  (?).  7.  The  eye  of  Horus,  pro- 
tecting from  disease  and  all  kinds  of  mis- 
fortune. 8.  A  heart.  9.  (?).  10.  A 
scent-bottle. 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian  amulets,  which  the 
Hebrews  copied,  were  numerous  and 
varied — sometimes  astronomical.     (Isaiah 

318-23) 


of  inheritance.  Land  monopoly  re- 
sulted;   one  master  grasped  a  whole  domain. 

Drunkenness. — Drunken  Ephraim  has  gone  into  captivity, 
but  drunken  Judah  remains.  Even  priest  and  prophet, 
while  performing  their  religious  duties,  "  reel  with  mead. 
They  reel  during  their  visions,  they  totter  while  giving 
judgment"  (Isaiah  277). 

Idolatry. — Micah  is  so  absorbed  with  the  wrongs  of  the  poor 
that  he  has  little  to  say  about  the  forms  of  religion,  but 
Isaiah  gives  us  hints  of  the  degeneracy  caused  by  foreign 
cults — the  sacrifices  on  high  places,  burning  incense  to 


212 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


heathen  deities.    Even  the  ornaments  of  the  women  take 
the  form  of  magic  amulets,  little  suns  and  moons,  ear- 
drops, nose-rings,  girdles,  and  veils. 
128.  The  Protests  of  Isaiah  and  Micah.     Against  all  of 
this  the  reformers  now  turn,  both  with  the  spoken  and  the 


Fig.    103— ASSYRIANS    ASSAULTING    A    CITY  ( 

This  cut  gives  some  details  of  warfare  not  shown  inFigs.  104  ff.  Notice  that  the 
beam  of  the  ram  is  suspended  from  a  tower  and  is  worked  by  men  who  are 
protected  from  attack  by  a  thatch  of  shields.  The  officer  in  charge  has  a 
"conning-tower''  from  which  to  direct  operations.  On  the  same  mova- 
ble platform  is  another  tower  by  which  the  Assyrian  sharpshooters  are 
raised  high  enough  to  pick  off  the  defenders  on  the  wall.  The  king 
personally  engages  in  the  assault,  accompanied  by  his  two  armor-bearers 
and  an  official.  His  powerful  bow  will  shoot  an  arrow  from  1,000  to  1,400 
feet.  This  picture  fairly  describes  the  Assyrian  operations  against 
Jerusalem  (Sec.  125)  though  it  dates  from  the  ninth  century  b.c.  Note 
the  childish  way  of  representing  men  nearly  as  tall  as  the  city  towers. 


written  word, 
denunciation: 


Isaiah  relies  upon  pleading  as  well  as  upon 


"  Wash  you,  make  you  clean, 
Let  me  see  the  evil  of  your  doings  no  more. 
Seek  out  justice,  chastise  the  violent. 
Right  the  orphan,  plead  for  the  widow. 
Come  now  and  let  us  argue  together,  says  Jehovah. 
If  your  sins  be  as  scarlet,  they  may  become  white  as 

snow; 
Be  they  red  as  crimson,  they  may  become  as  wool." 


THE  PROTESTS  OF  MICAH  213 

Micah,  sprung  from  the  people  and  full  of  the  violence  of 
the  revolutionist,  denounces  and  threatens: 

"Hear  this,  you  heads  of  the  house  of  Jacob, 
And  you  judges  of  the  house  of  Israel, 
You  who  spurn  justice, 
And  make  all  that  is  straight  crooked, 
Who  build  Zion  with  acts  of  bloodshed, 
And  Jerusalem  with  crime. 

The  heads  render  judgment  for  a  bribe, 
And  her  priests  give  oracles  for  a  reward, 
And  her  prophets  divine  for  silver; 
Yet  they  lean  upon  Jehovah  and  think, 
'Jehovah  is  indeed  in  our  midst, 
Evil  cannot  overtake  us.' 

Therefore  for  your  sakes 

Zion  shall  be  plowed  as  a  field, 

And  Jerusalem  shall  become  a  heap  of  ruins, 

And  her  temple  mount  a  wooded  height." 

It  was  the  fire  of  Micah  that  touched  off  the  train  of  re- 
form. The  public  conscience  was  aroused  and  the  king  had 
to  act. 

129.  The  Temple  Cleansed.  It  is  easy  to  imagine  the 
task  that  confronted  the  reformers  in  the  temple.  Idolatry 
had  been  rampant  for  fourteen  years  when  Hezekiah  came 
to  the  throne,  and  even  if  the  clean-up  took  place  in  the 
first  year  of  his  reign,  there  was  enough  to  do.  But  if,  as 
seems  probable  from  the  study  of  the  prophets,  the  reforma- 
tion did  not  occur  until  after  701,  there  were  thirty-two  years 
of  neglect  for  which  to  atone.  The  cleaners  began  with 
shovels  and  scrubbing-brushes.  There  was  not  only  the 
refuse  from  the  sacrificial  altars  to  remove,  but  all  kinds  of 
rubbish  that  had  been  thrown  into  the  temple  court  as  an 


214 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


intentional  pollution  of  Jehovah's  precinct.  It  took  them 
eight  days  to  clear  out  the  court.  They  then  undertook  to 
clean  the  temple  itself.     Eight  days  more  were  required  to 

remove    the    dirt,     find, 


clean,  and  arrange  the  fur- 
niture and  utensils,  and 
lastly  to  make  everything 
ceremonially  holy  by  a 
sort  of  spiritual  fumiga- 
tion— by  washings  in  holy 
water,  by  uttered  charms 
or  formulas,  and  by 
prayers,  to  drive  away  the 
taint  which  the  worship 
of  foreign  gods  had  left. 
Then  everything  was 
ready  for  the  ceremony  of 
rededication,  which  took 
place  with  great  pomp. 
Following  this  Hezekiah 
proclaimed  a  wonderful 
Passover  feast,  to  which 
all  Judah  was  invited.  He 
even  sent  messengers  to 
the  various  towns  of  Israel 
to  ask  all  who  were  still 
faithful  to  Jehovah  to  join 
in  the  festivities.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  peasant  Is- 
raelites who  had  escaped 
deportation  under  Sargon 
had  lost  interest  in  a  god 
who,  they  thought,  could 
not  protect  his  people,  and  they  made  sport  of  the  whole 
affair.  Nevertheless,  Judah  celebrated  the  ancient  feast 
with  great  ceremony.     So  great  was  the  enthusiasm  gener- 


FlQ. 


104— DESTRUCTION  OF  LA- 
CHISH 


This  cut  and  Figs.  10.5  and  106  are  from 
the  famous  series  of  slabs  on  which 
Sennacherib  describes  the  campaign 
against  Lachish.  They  were  taken 
from  his  palace  at  Nineveh,  and  are 
now  in  the  British  Museum, 
this  picture  find  the  flames  of  the 
burning  city,  soldiers  ■  destroying 
(what  tools  do  they  use?),  soldiers 
carrying  off  loot,  soldiers  eating  and 
drinking,  a  sentinel.  Notice  that  the 
city  is  on  a  hill.     See  Fig.  13. 


In 


THE   TEMPLE   CLEANSED  215 

ated  by  this  feast  that  the  people  undertook  the  destruction 
of  all  idols  and  other  accompaniments  of  the  strange  gods, 
the  stone  pillars  and  the  poles  on  the  high  places,  the  altars 
and  all  the  heathen  symbols.  Hezekiah  destroyed  in  par- 
ticular one  venerable  object  that  the  people  of  Jerusalem 
had  worshipped  for  many  generations:  it  was  the  serpent 
that  Moses  was  said  to  have  made  in  the  wilderness.  What- 
ever its  origin,  it  had  become  an  idol.  Hezekiah  branded  it 
as  "an  old  brass  thing"  and  broke  it  up  with  the  rest.  Thus 
was  Jehovah  enthroned  again  as  the  national  God,  and  all 
his  rivals  were  swept  into  the  rubbish  heap. 

130.  The  Deeper  Reformation.  This  was  a  good  begin- 
ning, but  it  was  after  all  a  surface  affair.  The  prophets  knew 
very  well  that  ritual  and  sacrifice  had  little  to  do  with  true 
religion.  Amos  forty  years  before  had  voiced  Jehovah's 
disgust  with  feasts  and  new-moon  assemblies,  with  the  smell 
of  burning  flesh  and  the  noise  of  viols.  Now,  Isaiah  points 
out  the  same  weakness  in  the  popular  religion: 

"  What  care  I  for  the  great  number  of  your  sacrifices  ? 
says  Jehovah; 

I  am  sated  with  burnt-offerings  of  rams,  and  fat  of 
fed  beasts, 

And  in  the  blood  of  bullocks  and  lambs  and  he-goats  I 
have  no  delight. 

Your  new  moons  and  your  set  days  my  soul  hates; 

They  are  an  encumbrance  to  me;  I  am  tired  of  bear- 
ing it. 

If  you  spread  forth  your  hands  I  will  hide  mine  eyes 
from  you; 

Even  if  you  make  many  prayers  I  will  not  hear;  your 
hands  are  stained  with  blood." 

And  Micah,  still  more  dramatic  in  his  speech,  puts  the  ab- 
surdity of  immoral  religion  into  pointed  questions: 

"  With  what  shall  I  come  before  Jehovah, 
Bow  myself  before  the  God  on  high  ? 


216  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Shall  I  come  before  him  with  burnt-offerings, 

With  calves  a  year  old? 

Will  Jehovah  be  pleased  with  thousands  of  rams, 

With  myriads  of  streams  of  oil? 

Shall  I  give  him  my  first-born  for  my  guilt, 

The  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul  V 

The  answer  is  swift  and  clear: 

"It  has  been  shown  you,  0  man,  what  is  good; 
And  what  Jehovah  demands  of  you: 
Only  to  do  justice  and  love  mercy, 
And  to  walk  humbly  with  your  God." 

We  have  the  testimony  of  Jeremiah  that  Micah's  insist- 
ence upon  morality  had  an  immediate  effect.  From  the 
king  down  there  was  an  endeavor  to  put  their  house  in  or- 
der. Abuses  were  corrected,  the  powerful  were  restrained 
in  their  attempts  to  grind  the  weak.  Something  like  a 
reign  of  brotherhood  was  introduced.  At  least,  in  the  latter 
part  of  Isaiah's  life,  we  hear  none  of  those  fierce  denuncia- 
tions of  social  wickedness  that  fell  so  constantly  from  his 
lips  in  former  days;  and  in  the  sermons  of  the  prophets  who 
followed  Isaiah  social  problems  ceased  to  occupy  the  cen- 
tral place.  There  was  an  attempt  also  to  gather  up  the 
fragments  of  religious  literature  belonging  to  the  past  and 
preserve  it  for  purposes  of  instruction  or  ritual.  According 
to  Proverbs  251  part  of  our  book  of  Proverbs  was  collected 
under  Hezekiah  (chaps.  25-29);  the  Talmud  ascribes  to 
him  and  his  associates  the  writing  of  certain  other  books  of 
the  Old  Testament.  Thus  the  teachings  of  all  the  great  re- 
formers of  the  Assyrian  period  bore  fruit  in  the  heart  of 
this  king  and  in  the  conscience  of  the  people. 

131.  The  Great  Test.  Some  time  after  the  great  refor- 
mation, though  just  when  we  are  not  able  at  present  to 
determine  (probably  in  692),  the  new  faith  of  the  people  of 
Jerusalem    was   put   to   a  severe   test.      Sennacherib   again 


THE  GREAT  TEST 


217 


marched  westward,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of  conquering 
Egypt,  the  arch-plotter  and  disturber  of  his  peace.  The 
army  had  reached  the  Philistine  plain  when  Sennacherib 
decided  that  it  was  unwise  military  strategy  to  leave  in  his 
rear  a  strong  fortress  like  Jerusalem;  if  it  should  revolt,  it 


Fig.    105— VICTORIOUS    SOLDIERS    AT    LACHISH 

What  kinds  of  trees  are  shown  ?  How  many  soldiers  carry  human  heads  ? 
Find  a  captive  woman  and  child;  a  soldier  cutting  off  a  head;  other 
prisoners.     All  are  marching  toward  the  king  seated  in  Fig.  106. 


might  cut  off  his  retreat.  He  accordingly  sent  a  detachment 
of  his  army  under  the  Rabshakeh  (commander-in-chief)  to 
demand  the  surrender  of  the  city.  Three  Hebrew  officials 
came  out  to  treat  with  the  Assyrians  but  found  them  inso- 
lent in  their  demands.  The  Assyrians  even  talked  loudly 
in  the  Hebrew  tongue  so  that  the  common  people  on  the 
wall  might  hear  and  take  panic.  Their  argument  was: 
"  Surrender,  and  let  us  transplant  you  to  a  more  fruitful 
land  where  you  can  prosper  and  be  happy.  If  you  resist 
we  will  tear  you  to  pieces.  Trust  not  that  your  god  Jehovah 
will  deliver  you,  for  you  see  what  we  have  done  to  the  gods 


218  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

of  all  the  other  nations."  When  the  officials  brought  the 
Assyrian  demands  to  Hezekiah,  he  went  into  the  temple  to 
spread  them  before  Jehovah,  and  he  sent  for  his  best  friend, 
Isaiah.  The  prophet  assured  him  that  Jehovah  would  not 
allow  his  city  to  be  violated: 

"He  shall  not  come  into  the  city, 
Nor  shoot  an  arrow  into  it; 
I  will  guard  this  city  that  I  may  rescue  it, 
For  my  own  sake  and  for  my  servant  David's  sake." 

Isaiah  was  strengthened  in  his  faith  by  his  consciousness 
of  his  people's  virtue.  They  had  paid  their  tribute  faith- 
fully, they  had  purged  away  idolatry  and  had  reformed 
their  wicked  ways  in  accordance  with  their  best  light. 
Sennacherib  had  no  moral  right  to  make  these  demands, 
and  therefore  it  was  right  for  Jerusalem  not  to  yield.  The 
prophet,  who  forty  years  before  had  warned  Ahaz  not  to 
make  alliance  with  Assyria,  and  who  for  thirty  years  after 
the  compact  was  made  had  counselled  absolute  fidelity  to 
Assyria,  now  in  the  light  of  Assyria's  perfidy  boldly  chal- 
lenged the  great  empire  and  threw  himself  on  Jehovah's 
protection.     It  is  a  sublime  spectacle  of  faith  and  courage. 

The  prophet's  faith  was  justified  by  an  extraordinary 
event.  When  the  Rabshakeh  returned  to  Sennacherib  with 
his  report  of  Jerusalem's  defiance,  he  found  that  the  Assyrian 
army  had  advanced  to  the  border  of  Egypt  to  attack  Tir- 
hakah,  the  Ethiopian  king.  Here  a  pestilence  broke  out,  or, 
in  the  language  of  the  scripture,  "  an  angel  of  Jehovah  slew 
in  the  camp  of  the  Assyrian  185,000  men."  Sennacherib 
was  frightened  and  beat  a  hasty  retreat,  ordering  home  at 
the  same  time  the  detachment  that  was  about  Jerusalem. 
The  city  was  saved,  and  the  aged  prophet  became  after  all 
his  trials  and  labors  the  most  honored  and  beloved  citizen 
of  the  nation. 


ISAIAH'S  WORK   AND   CHARACTER  219 

132.  Summary  of  Isaiah's  Work  and  Character.  Isaiah's 
career  as  prophet  covers  four  reigns,  five  Assyrian  invasions, 
and  three  periods  of  special  activity,  divided  as  follows: 


Fig.    106— HOMAGE    TO    SENNACHERIB 

The  background  represents  the  stony  hills  of  Palestine.  Find  Sennacherib 
on  his  throne  set  in  a  grove;  his  fly-drivers;  his  waiting  chariot;  his  gen- 
eral and  captains  reporting  their  victory;  the  elders  of  Lachish  begging 
for  mercy.  The  little  panel  of  text  in  front  of  the  king  reads:  "Sennach- 
erib, king  of  hosts,  king  of  Assyria,  sat  upon  his  throne  of  state,  and  the 
spoil  of  the  city  of  Lachish  passed  before  him." 


1.  Preaching  social  reform  and  hostility  to  any  Assyrian 
alliance.  This  period  coincides  with  the  invasion  of  Israel 
by  Tiglath-pileser  IV  in  734-733,  and  the  destruction  of 
Samaria  by  Sargon  in  722. 

2.  Preaching  fidelity  to  Assyria  and  hostility  to  Egyptian 
projects  for  revolt.  This  period  covers  the  campaigns  of 
Sargon  in  711  and  of  Sennacherib  in  701. 


220  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

3.  Preaching  reform  and  counselling  resistance  to  Sen- 
nacherib, 700-692. 

While  Isaiah  was  the  most  versatile  of  all  the  prophets, 
it  is  upon  his  work  as  a  statesman  that  his  reputation  with 
later  generations  chiefly  rests.  He  was  the  greatest  states- 
man of  Hebrew  history.  Through  repeated  crises  he  offered 
counsels  which  if  followed  would  have  brought  peace  and 
comparative  prosperity  to  little  Judah.  His  principles  of 
action  were  founded  upon  a  clear  idea  of  justice  and  on  a 
deep  religious  faith,  and  therefore  he  could  endure  opposi- 
tion and  disgrace — as  during  most  of  his  life  he  was  obliged 
to  endure  them — he  could  challenge  iniquity  in  high  places 
and  labor  unceasingly  for  the  redemption  of  his  nation. 
He  was  primarily  a  prophet  of  action.  Though  he  made  no 
new  contribution  to  the  religious  thought  of  Israel,  his  be- 
lief in  the  righteousness  and  majesty  of  Jehovah  was  so 
strong  that  it  became  henceforth  a  transforming  force  in  the 
national  life.  That  Judah  did  not  at  this  period  cease  to 
exist  under  the  impact  of  Assyria  and  like  Israel  leave  no 
trace  behind  but  endured  for  a  full  century,  until  its  relig- 
ious life  was  so  strengthened  and  purified  that  it  could  en- 
dure the  shock  of  exile,  is  due  in  large  measure  to  Isaiah. 


XX 

THE  RETURN  TO  HEATHENISM 

Manasseh  (692-638),  son  of  Hezekiah. 

133.  Assyria  the  World  Overlord.  The  kingdom  that 
Manasseh  inherited  from  his  father  was  a  microscopic  one, 
and  he  held  it  for  fifty-five  years  simply  by  permission  of 
Assyria.  The  territory  was  so  small  that  the  Assyrian 
Esarhaddon  speaks  of  it  as  the  "city  of  Judah."  Among  the 
great  states  that  made  up  the  empire,  Judah  was  almost  a 
negligible  quantity.  Yet  it  paid  Manasseh  to  be  loyal;  he 
had  his  head  in  the  lion's  mouth.  During  his  reign  he  enjoyed 
peace  because  he  paid  his  tribute  faithfully.  No  longer  was 
there  coquetting  with  Egypt;  rather,  when  Ashurbanipal  un- 
dertook a  campaign  against  Egypt  in  688,  Manasseh  sent 
a  contingent  of  troops  and  ships  to  help  him  like  a  dutiful 
subordinate.  Yet  Manasseh  had  temptations  enough  to 
revolt.  Tirhakah  of  Egypt  and  his  successor  gave  Assyria 
plenty  of  trouble  from  676  to  660,  necessitating  not  only  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  but  repeated  punishments  and  the  de- 
struction of  Thebes.  Sidon  revolted  in  678,  Tyre  in  668, 
Babylon  in  652,  and  her  example  roused  to  similar  action 
northern  Arabia,  Edom,  Moab,  the  Hauran,  and  upper 
Phoenicia. 

Manasseh  or  his  advisers  must  have  exercised  great  self- 
control  not  to  have  been  drawn  into  these  whirlpools  of  re- 
bellion. They,  no  doubt,  felt  what  we  now  know  to  be  a 
fact,  that  the  great  Assyrian  empire  was  at  the  height  of  its 
power,  the  summit  of  its  culture  and  of  its  ability  to  stamp 
that  culture  upon  its  subject  peoples.  The  hands  of  Esar- 
haddon and  of  his  son  Ashurbanipal  were  everywhere — de- 
structively if  there  was  resistance,  constructively  if  there  was 

221 


222 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


co-operation.  Every- 
where there  was  Assyr- 
ian administration. 
Officers  from  Nineveh 
were  resident  in  each 
province  to  see  not  only 
that  governmental  af- 
fairs ran  smoothly,  but 
that  Assyrian  ideas  and 
ways  of  doing  things 
were  introduced.  At 
Gezer,  for  instance,  have 
been  found  tablets  re- 
cording in  the  Assyr- 
ian language,  and  un- 
der an  Assyrian  notary, 
the  deeds  of  sales  of 
land.  We  know  that 
Esarhaddon  established 
his  officials  and  his  gods 
at  Sid  on.  By  numer- 
ous other  signs  we  know 
that  ideas  flowed  freely 
along  the  arteries  of 
traffic  throughout  the 
western  world,  from 
Thebes  and  Arabia  on 
the  south  to  Cappado- 
cia  and    the    Caucasus 


Fig.    107— ESARHADDON,    KING    OF  ASSYRIA,    681-668   B.C. 

The  king  stands  with  a  libation  vase  in  his  right  hand,  while  he  worships  the 
various  gods  represented  before  his  face.  In  his  left  hand  he-  holds  a 
sceptre  and  the  leash  by  which  his  two  captive  kings  are  secured.  A 
hook  passes  through  their  lips.  The  larger  figure  represents  Baal,  king 
of  Tyre;  the  smaller  Tirhakah  (Ethiopian  king  of  Egypt  704-663  b.c. 
II  Kings  199).  The  monument  was  set  up  at  Senjirli  in  northern  Syria 
670  b.c.  In  his  inscription  he  mentions  Manasseh  of  Judah  among  his 
conquered  kings. 


ASSYRIA  THE   WORLD  OVERLORD 


223 


on  the  north,  and  well  up 
into  the  Zagros  mountains 
on  the  east.  Nineveh  was 
the  heart  of  the  empire,  and 
the  life  blood  was  Assyrian 
authority  and  culture. 

134.  Assyria  the  Heir  of 
Babylon.  Yet  Assyria  was 
herself  the  inheritor  of  an 
older  culture,  a  culture  be- 
gun by  the  Sumerians,  ab- 
sorbed and  passed  on  by 
the  Babylonians  in  their 
early  city  states  and  in  their 
great  empire  under  Ham- 
murabi, and  now  brilliantly 
revived  by  the  broad-minded 
enthusiasm  of  Esarhaddon 
(681-668)  and  Ashurbanipal 
(668-626).  The  city  of 
Babylon,  which  we  saw  try- 
ing to  assert  its  independence 
under  Merodach-baladan 
(Sec.  124),  was  finally  de- 
stroyed by  Sennacherib ;  but 
Esarhaddon  saw  its  value  to 
the  world  and  rebuilt  it. 
Ashurbanipal  especially  be- 
came interested  in  its  liter- 
ature and  its   religion,   had 

translations  of  its  old  books  made  into  the  Assyrian  language, 
and  assembled  a  great  library  which  to-day,  for  the  most 
part,  lies  in  the  British  Museum  and  which  has  brought  back 
as  from  the  dead  a  lost  civilization.  Assyrian  culture  was 
therefore  Babylonian.  It  was  this  culture  embodying  the 
work  of  the  oldest  Semitic  civilization  in  the  world  that  was 


Fig.    108 — BABYLONIAN    FLOOD 
TABLET 

One  of  the  20,000  books  from  the  li- 
brary of  Ashurbanipal  (668-626 
b.c.)  found  at  Nineveh  and  deposi- 
ted in  the  British  Museum.  The 
clay  was  inscribed  with  a  three- 
sided  instrument  made  of  wood, 
metal,  or  ivory,  and  then  baked  in 
an  oven  so  that  the  inscription 
might  be  permanent  (see  Fig.  125). 
The  king  sent  scribes  to  the  ancient 
cities  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
where  libraries  existed,  to  make 
copies  of  rare  and  important  works 
for  his  own  library.  In  this  way 
were  preserved  for  us  the  ancient 
literature,  science,  and  social  docu- 
ments of  the  Sumerians  and  Baby- 
lonians. Among  these  books  are 
certain  Creation  tablets  and  Flood 
tablets  which  clearly  influenced  the 
writers  of  Genesis. 


224  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

now  poured  into  Palestine,  into  little  Judah,  not  only  add- 
ing elements  that,  though  old,  were  new  to  Hebrew  thought, 
but  bringing  back  to  life  the  beliefs  and  practices  that  lay 
buried  deep  in  the  Semitic  nature  of  the  Hebrews.  Small 
wonder  that  Manasseh  yielded  to  the  tide,  that  he  made  his 
peace  and  his  crown  secure  by  drifting  with  the  currents 
that  set  so  strongly  from  Nineveh. 

135.  Enter  the  Host  of  Heaven.  Babylonian  religion  had 
a  basis  in  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  From  the 
most  ancient  days  the  dwellers  on  the  plain  of  Shinar  had 
been  astronomers,  and  it  was  but  a  step  from  science  to  re- 
ligion, where  the  objects  of  study  were  so  wondrous  and  so 
beautiful;  in  fact,  religion  came  before  science.  These 
Babylonian  gods  the  Assyrians  inherited  and  were  now 
spreading  throughout  their  broad  dominions.  It  became  as 
much  a  badge  of  loyalty  to  offer  homage  to  their  gods  as  in 
the  early  Christian  days  it  was  to  sprinkle  salt  on  the  altar 
of  the  divine  Ca?sar.  Manasseh  promptly  opened  the  courts 
of  Jehovah's  temple  to  the  host  of  heaven,  and  in  par- 
ticular to  Ishtar,  the  planet  Venus,  the  queen  of  heaven. 
Surely  there  was  provocation  in  the  very  situation  of  Jeru- 
salem, lying  high  on  its  mountain  ridge  with  the  sky  so  near, 
with  the  clear-cut  horizon  of  Moab  thirty  miles  to  the  east 
from  which  the  planets  nightly  spring,  and  with  the  desert 
air  to  magnify  and  glorify  the  radiance  of  every  star.  The 
new  worship  spread  like  wild-fire.  Many  a  housetop  became 
an  altar  from  which  incense  ascended,  even  a  family  altar; 
for,  as  Jeremiah  says  (718) :  "  The  children  gather  wood  and 
the  fathers  kindle  the  fire  and  the  women  knead  the  dough 
to  make  cakes  to  the  Queen  of  Heaven."  Nor  was  this 
purely  a  relapse  and  a  denial  of  Jehovah.  In  the  minds  of 
many  was  the  thought  that  Jehovah  was  still  being  wor- 
shipped, that  he  who  had  formerly  been  called  the  Lord  of 
the  hosts  of  Israel,  might  now  be  called  Lord  of  the  hosts  of 
heaven.  This  was  a  seductive  and  dangerous  mingling  of 
the  new  and  the  old.     The  strength  of  the  new  worship  lay 


ENTER  THE   HOST  OF  HEAVEN 


225 


not  in  the  fact  that  it  was  introduced  and  made  popular  by 
imperial  command,  but  that  it  appealed  to  some  of  the  most 
fundamental  instincts  of  man,  among  them  the  instinct  for 


Fig.    109— A    ROYAL    LION    HUNT 

This  represents  the  most  perfect  period  of  Assyrian  art.  characterized  by  vigor, 
skill  in  composition,  and  a  fidelity  to  nature  excelled  by  no  ancient  race. 
The  royal  chariot  holds  four  people:  the  king,  the  charioteer  and  two 
assistants.  The  horses  go  forward  at  full  gallop,  while  the  king  shoots  the 
lions  which  his  hunters  have  beaten  up.  One  dead  lioness  lies  behind  the 
chariot;  her  wounded  mate  springs  at  the  king,  but  is  killed  by  the  spears 
of  the  two  assistants. 


nature-worship  in  its  most  alluring  form,   approved,   to  be 
sure,  and  stimulated  by  the  court. 

136.  Re-enter  the  Old  Gods.  When  the  doors  of  the 
Hebrew  conscience  opened  wide  enough  to  admit  the  host 
of  heaven,  they  admitted  also  the  host  of  the  earth.  Out 
from  their  hiding-places  they  came,  from  the  memories  of 
old   grand-dames,  from   the   uncanny  ravings  of  clairvoyants 


226  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

and  wise  women,  from  the  springs  and  trees  and  the  caverns 
of  the  wilderness.  All  the  old  Semitic  stock  of  gods,  whose 
altars  and  sacred  poles  Hezekiah  had  scrapped,  now  trooped 
hack  for  a  final  fling  hefore  the  great  prophets  and  the 
scourge  of  the  exile  should  drive  them  out  forever.  Baal 
led  the  way,  or  rather  the  host  of  the  Baalim,  and  they  set 
up  their  poles  again  on  every  high  place  that  Hezekiah  had 
dismantled.     Next 

"  Moloch,  horrid  king,  besmeared  with  blood 
Of  human  sacrifice,  and  parents'  tears; 
Though,  for  the  noise  of  drums  and  timbrels  loud, 
Their  children's  cries  unheard  that  passed  through  fire 
To  his  grim  idol." 

Him  they  worshipped  in  the  valley  of  Hinnom  to  the 
south  of  the  city.  Shrines  arose  like  magic:  to  Thammuz, 
the  Phcenician  Adonis,  type  of  the  reviving  vegetation  of 
spring;  to  the  gods  of  their  Semitic  neighbors,  Chemosh  and 
Milcom.  The  courts  of  Jehovah,  the  houses  of  the  city,  the 
valleys  and  the  Mount  of  Olives  were  soon  covered  with  the 
spawn.  Now,  instead  of  inquiring  at  Jehovah's  oracle,  the 
people  practised  augury,  tried  to  learn  the  future  by  the 
"sound  of  the  movement  in  the  mulberry-trees,"  or  the 
hum  of  insects  or  of  flies;  or  they  consulted  mediums  who 
called  up  from  the  dead  their  familiar  spirits;  or  they  sought 
a  magician  who  by  means  of  spoken  words  of  power  con- 
trolled demons  or  jinn  that  could  stop  the  winds  or  dry  up  a 
spring  or  cause  an  enemy  to  pine  away  and  die.  Worse  than 
this,  when  the  people  lost  their  grip  on  Jehovah,  who  in- 
sisted on  morality,  they  dropped  back  into  the  licentious- 
ness that  has  always  gone  hand  in  hand  with  the  crude 
faiths  of  crude  civilizations.  The  morals  of  Judah  took  a 
swift  fall,  backslid  to  the  days  of  Ahaz  that  had  so  incensed 
Isaiah.  It  truly  seemed  as  if  the  abyss  had  swallowed  up 
the  prophetic  teachings  and  even  Jehovah  himself. 


REASONS  FOR  THE  REACTION  227 

137.  The  Underlying  Reasons  for  the  Reaction.  We  have 
suggested  that  political  interest  caused  Manasseh  to  open 
his  land  to  the  Assyrian  gods.  But  undoubtedly  other 
causes  were  at  work.  We  must  remember  that  Manasseh 
was  only  a  lad  of  twelve  years  when  he  was  crowned,  which 
means  that  he  personally  did  not  shape  the  destinies  of  his 
kingdom  for  at  least  ten  years.  Who  was  the  power  behind 
the  throne?  There  is  not  a  hint  in  the  Bible.  We  know, 
however,  that  in  all  eastern  courts  the  harem  plays  a  large 
part,  especially  in  intrigue.  The  royal  household  of  Judah 
contained  women  from  many  lands  and  of  many  faiths.  They 
were  undoubtedly  ignorant,  superstitious,  and  revengeful, 
as  well  as  vain  and  licentious.  They  had  no  special  sym- 
pathy with  the  reforms  of  the  late  king,  and  they  had  a  very 
lively  hatred  for  the  old  prophet  who  had  held  their  vanity 
and  their  immorality  up  to  such  public  scorn  (Isaiah  310"24). 
There  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  these  women  used  all 
their  influence  to  get  their  boy  king  out  from  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  puritanic  Isaiah  and  his  party.  And  they  had 
plenty  of  helpers,  all  the  old  grafters  and  pleasure  hunters 
whom  Hezekiah  had  overthrown.  The  good  old  times  was 
all  they  asked  for,  especially  if  in  bringing  them  back  they 
could  get  even  with  their  enemies  Isaiah  and  Micah. 

Then  the  reforms  of  Hezekiah  had  been  undertaken  late 
in  his  reign  and  in  a  way  under  pressure.  The  marvellous 
deliverance  of  Jerusalem  from  Sennacherib  in  accordance 
with  Isaiah's  word  had  hypnotized  everybody  into  a  tem- 
porary declaration  for  Jehovah.  But,  on  further  thought, 
they  saw  that  Jehovah  had  not  saved  the  forty-six  fenced 
cities  of  Judah,  and  that  the  gods  of  Assyria  had  laid  waste 
and  plundered  and  killed  and  carried  captive  about  as  they 
pleased.  The  country  places  were  then,  as  always,  less  ad- 
vanced in  religious  ideas;  and  when  the  invasion  of  Sen- 
nacherib drove  thousands  of  villagers  into  Jerusalem  for 
refuge,  they  merely  swelled  the  number  of  superstitious 
jinn-worshippers  who  could  never  help  a  reform,  but  who 


228 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


could  always  be  counted  on  to  favor  a  reaction.  Hezekiah's 
reform  had  been  accomplished  largely  by  proclamation  in- 
stead of  conversion.  As  King  Olaf  of  Norway  preached  the 
gospel  with  his  sword,  with  the  result  that  on  his  death  Odin 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    110— VALLEY    OF    HINNOM 

This  is  the  valley  made  infamous  by  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  kings  of 
Judah,  beginning  with  Solomon  and  ending  with  Amon.  It  was  pol- 
luted by  Josiah  so  that  it  might  never  again  serve  as  a  place  of  worship, 
and  thenceforward  its  name,  changed  to  Ge-henna,  became  a  symbol  of 
the  dumping-place  of  the  moral  refuse  of  humanity  (Hell). 

The  great  hill  to  the  left  is  Zion,  the  highest  portion  of  ancient  Jerusalem, 
though  now  outside  the  walls.  The  southeast  angle  of  the  city  wall  ap- 
pears to  the  right  of  it,  above  the  almost  indistinguishable  hill  of  OpheL 
To  the  right  of  this  sweeps  down  the  steep  valley  of  the  Kidron,  whi'  3 
on  the  extreme  right  rises  the  Mount  of  Olives. 


and  the  other  Norse  gods  came  promptly  back,  so  Hezekiah 
preached  his  gospel  by  edict.  The  new  truth  lacked  grip  on 
the  popular  mind.  Isaiah's  only  God,  high  above  the  earth 
and  holy,  did  not  satisfy  the  plain  citizen  who  needed  a  god 
that  could  help  him  earn  his  bread  and  butter  and  could 
scare  away  the  devils  from  his  sheep  and  his  olive-trees. 
So  the  old  gods  and  the  new  ones  won  out. 


MANASSEH'S  SHAME  229 

138.  Manasseh's   Shame   and    God's   Opportunity.     The 

hatred  of  the  pious  folks  by  the  old  grafters  and  idolaters 
whom  Isaiah  and  Micah  had  succeeded  in  banishing  must  have 
been  intense.  They  were  not  satisfied  until  they  had  driven 
every  last  reformer  to  cover.  Manasseh  as  their  tool  signed 
the  death-warrant  of  many  a  preacher  of  righteousness:  "he 
shed  innocent  blood  very  much,  until  he  had  filled  Jerusalem 
from  one  end  to  the  other."  Tradition  says  that  the  aged 
Isaiah  fell  in  the  slaughter — as  well  he  might  fall.  But  the 
blood  of  the  martyrs  became,  as  always,  the  seed  of  the  new 
faith.  Those  who  escaped  the  sword  and  could  no  longer 
preach  their  belief,  wrote  it.  In  those  dark  hours  of  per- 
secution the  biblical  books  of  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah  (chaps. 
1-33),  and  Micah  took  substantially  their  present  form.  A 
new  history  of  the  Hebrews,  embodying  the  great  moral 
lessons  that  were  illustrated  by  the  stories  of  the  race,  was 
compiled  out  of  the  old  Judean  and  the  old  Ephraimitic 
historical  material;  and  the  beginning  also  was  made  on  the 
book  of  Deuteronomy,  which  puts  down  in  the  form  of 
definite  laws  the  reforms  of  Isaiah  and  his  fellows  and  which 
appeared  for  the  first  time  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  a  few  years 
later  (Sec.  141).  There  was  certainly  no  more  important 
period  of  literary  or  spiritual  activity,  prior  to  the  exile,  than 
this  bloody  reign  of  Manasseh.  Conviction  was  ripening 
and  deepening,  roots  of  faith  were  striking  down  into  the 
structure  of  the  moral  universe,  and  strong  branches  were 
reaching  upward  to  a  clearer  heaven.  Hereafter  there  will 
be  more  preachers  of  righteousness. 


XXI 
JUDAH'S  NEW  DEMOCRATIC  CONSTITUTION 

Amon  (638-637),  son  of  Manasseh. 
Josiah  (637-607),  son  of  Amon. 

139.  The  Reformers'  Fresh  Grip.  Nothing  is  recorded  of 
the  brief  reign  of  Manasseh's  son  Amon  except  that  he  fol- 
lowed in  the  footsteps  of  his  father  and  that  he  was  mur- 
dered. What  was  the  cause  of  the  assassination  we  do  not 
know.  The  murderers  belonged  to  the  court,  and  those  who 
avenged  the  murder  and  set  the  young  Josiah  on  the  throne 
were  the  public  at  large.  The  quarrel  was  evidently  a 
private  affair  and  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  great  change 
of  policy  that  ensued. 

There  must  have  been  a  good  deal  of  quick  manoeuvring 
behind  the  scenes  when  Amon  suddenly  dropped  out,  for 
his  successor  was  his  son  Josiah,  a  mere  child  of  eight.  He 
was  too  young  to  show  any  significant  traits,  but  not  too 
young  to  be  directed  by  some  one  and  trained  to  a  definite 
ideal.  We  do  not  know  how  it  came  about,  but  somebody  in 
.sympathy  with  the  persecuted  prophetic  party  won  the 
necessary  control  and  took  the  little  king  in  hand.  It  may 
have  been  Hilkiah,  whom  Josiah  later  made  high  priest; 
more  likely  it  was  Zephaniah  who  wrote  the  biblical  book  of 
that  name.  We  know  that  he  was  of  royal  blood,  being  a 
descendant  of  Hezekiah,  and  therefore  on  the  inside  of 
palace  politics.  This  initial  victory  of  the  prophetic  party 
was  of  prime  importance,  for  it  enabled  them  to  come  back 
slowly  but  surely,  as  the  young  king  was  trained  into  their 
ways  of  looking  at  things.  By  the  time  Josiah  was  sixteen 
years  old  and  ready  to  make  decisions  for  himself,  he  frankly 
avowed  his  sympathy  with  their  policies,  and  before  he  was 
twenty-six  he  was  actually  leading  in  reforms. 

230 


THE   SCYTHIAN  SCARE  231 

140.  The  Scythian  Scare.  About  626  something  hap- 
pened that  sent  the  shivers  through  Judah  and  made  people 
recall  all  the  prophecies  of  dreadful  things  that  Isaiah  and 
Micah  and  Amos  had  ever  made.  It  awoke  to  life  two  new 
prophets  also,  Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah.  This  was  a  deluge 
of  Scythian  hordes  that  poured  out  of  Europe  across  the 
Caucasus  into  Media  and  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia.  Un- 
fortunately, in  the  same  year  the  great  Ashurbanipal  died 
and  was  succeeded  by  a  weakling.  There  was  nothing  to 
stay  the  onward  sweep  of  this  tidal  wave  of  barbarians. 
The  Scythians  lacked  the  skill  to  conquer  strongly  fortified 
cities,  but  all  other  places  which  they  touched  they  plunged 
into  blood.  Both  Zephaniah  (chap.  1)  and  Jeremiah  (chaps. 
4-6)  boldly  announced  that  this  was  the  scourge  of  Jehovah, 
the  day  of  doom  that  Jehovah  had  promised  to  idolatrous 
Judah.  The  hordes  spread  southward  along  the  coastal 
plain  of  Palestine,  blotting  out  the  Philistine  towns.  Their 
ultimate  aim  was  to  plunder  the  rich  valley  of  the  Nile. 
But  a  new  dynasty  had  arisen  in  Egypt,  the  twenty-sixth, 
and  Psamtik  I,  a  vigorous  and  ambitious  king,  turned  back 
the  tide  at  his  frontier  either  by  the  sword  or  with  gold. 
Jerusalem  on  her  mountain  perch  was  not  touched,  but  the 
terror  she  felt  was  a  mighty  aid  to  the  reformers.  It  was  a 
glimpse  of  hell-fire. 

141.  The  Happy  Find.  By  621  the  reformation  had 
gathered  some  headway.  Josiah  was  having  the  temple 
repaired  and  sent  his  secretary  to  audit  the  counting  of  the 
money  which  the  people  had  cast  into  the  collection  boxes 
for  that  purpose.  When  the  job  was  done,  Hilkiah  the 
high  priest  told  the  secretary  that  he  had  discovered  a  law- 
book in  the  temple,  and  he  gave  it  to  him  to  read.  The  sec- 
retary took  it  to  Josiah  and  read  it  to  him.  The  king  was 
profoundly  impressed  and  so  alarmed  that  he  tore  his  clothes, 
for  the  book  gave  in  detail  the  curses  that  would  fall  upon 
Judah  if  Jehovah's  law  were  not  scrupulously  obeyed. 
Hastily   the  king  sent  five  of  his  most  trusty   advisers   to 


232 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


From  a  photograph  by  Duight  L.  Elmcndorf 

Fig.     Ill— OLD    CODEX    AT    SHECHEM 
(See  description  on  opposite  page) 


THE  HAPPY  FIND  233 

the  prophetess  Huldah  to  see  if  Jehovah  would  say  through 
her  whether  the  doom  might  in  any  way  be  averted.  The 
answer  came  that  repentance  and  thorough  reform  might  at 
least  postpone  the  crisis.  The  king  thereupon  set  on  foot  a 
complete  revision  of  all  the  religious  practices  of  the  realm, 
a  great  house-cleaning  more  thorough  than  even  Hezekiah's 
had  been. 

This  discovery  suggests  interesting  questions  that  can  be 
answered  only  by  inference.  What  was  this  book,  how  did 
it  happen  to  be  written,  and  why  was  it  discovered  and 
brought  to  the  king's  attention  at  such  a  propitious  time? 
When  we  consider  the  fears  that  the  curses  of  the  book 
aroused  and  the  nature  of  the  reforms  that  followed,  it 
seems  certain  that  the  book  was  essentially  the  oldest  por- 
tions of  our  book  of  Deuteronomy,  chapters  twelve  to  nine- 
teen. It  was  that  recasting  of  the  older  legislation  ascribed 
to  Moses  upon  which  the  prophets  of  Manasseh's  reign  had 
been  secretly  at  work.  They  had  not  dared  to  publish  it 
over  their  own  names,  for  that  would  have  killed  its  influ- 
ence and  might  have  cost  them  their  lives.  They  therefore 
used  the  literary  device  of  putting  the  new  legislation  into 
the  mouth  of  Moses,  the  great  lawgiver;  in  truth,  it  was  in 
accord  with  the  prophetic  spirit  of  that  founder  of  Israel's 
faith.  Then,  when  they  felt  the  time  was  ripe,  some  one  ap- 
parently hid  it  in  a  temple  storeroom  where  they  knew  it 
would  be  discovered  during  the  repairs.  Possibly  the  high 
priest  was  in  the  secret,  but  not  necessarily  so.  He  was  at 
any  rate  in    sympathy  with  the    movement  it   represented 

This  is  Jacob,  son  of  Aaron,  High  Priest  of  the  Samaritans,  holding  their  most 
sacred  copy  of  the  Law.  The  Samaritans  claim  it  was  written  by  the 
great-grandson  of  Aaron,  but  scholars  say  that  it  is  only  about  2,000 
years  old.  It  is  written  in  the  old  Phoenician  character  as  used  by  the  Jews 
before  the  Captivity.  It  consists  of  the  Pentateuch  and  Joshua,  books 
that  form  the  constitution  of  the  Samaritan  faith  and  nation,  as  one  of 
them,  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  was  the  earlier  constitution  of  the  Judean 
commonwealth.  By  changing  the  text  of  Deut.  274  from  "Ebal"  to 
"Gerizim"  they  claim  that  Mount  Gerizim  is  the  one  sanctuary  chosen  of 
Jehovah,  and  that  the  claims  of  Jerusalem  are  false.  (Sec.  143  and  John 
4*o.) 


234  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

and  was  shrewd  enough  to  get  the  book  into  the  king's 
hands  without  delay.  The  royal  fears  and  the  royal  en- 
thusiasm did  the  rest. 

142.  The  Great  Reform.  Josiah  threw  all  his  youthful 
energy  into  the  task  of  cleansing.  First  he  called  a  grand 
assembly  of  all  the  free  men  of  Judah.  They  thronged  to 
the  temple  courts  and  there  listened  with  wonder  while  the 
king  himself  read  the  entire  book,  its  curses  and  its  bless- 
ings. The  people  were  so  impressed,  or  so  pliant  in  the 
king's  hands,  that  they  and  Josiah  together  vowed  to  make 
the  new-found  book  the  law  of  the  land.  The  book  thus 
became  the  first  written  constitution  the  Hebrews  ever  had, 
and  by  far  the  most  fateful  both  for  good  and  ill. 

Josiah  then  began  to  put  into  execution  every  one  of  the 
new  statutes.  He  found  there  the  command  to  worship 
Jehovah  alone  and  to  use  in  that  worship  neither  idol 
nor  symbol.  Jerusalem  was  still  filled  with  the  abom- 
inations of  Manasseh  his  grandfather  and  the  sacred 
poles,  standing  stones,  and  other  Canaanite  devices  with 
which  the  Hebrews  had  long  worshipped  Jehovah.  These 
now  all  went  by  the  board.  The  priests  brought  them  out 
from  the  temple,  burned  them,  and  scattered  the  ashes  in 
polluted  places.  The  Queen  of  Heaven,  the  bronze  horses 
and  chariots  of  the  sun,  the  roof  altars,  the  house  of  the 
sodomites,  and  all  the  shrines  by  which  Solomon  had  kept 
the  peace  in  his  overfeminine  household,  all  were  ground  to 
powder.  Henceforth  Jehovah  should  be  dissociated  for- 
ever from  the  debasing  rites  of  the  Canaanite  religion  and 
should  have  no  rivals.  This  destruction  of  idols  was  the  first 
step  toward  reformation. 

143.  The  Abolition  of  the  High  Places.  Josiah  found 
also  the  command  that  all  high  places  should  be  destroyed 
and  the  worship  transferred  to  Jerusalem.  This  was  not 
such  a  large  undertaking  as  might  at  first  seem.  Many 
high  places  had  already  been  destroyed  by  the  Assyrians, 
and  the  territory  of  Judah  was  now  so  small  that  only  a  few 


ABOLITION  OF   HIGH  PLACES 


235 


square  miles  were  included  within  its  boundary.  Going  to 
Jerusalem  was  not  a  difficult  task,  for  a  man  could  easily 
walk  there  in  a  day  or  two  from  the  most  remote  corners  of 
the  land.      The  prophets  since   Hosea  had  felt  that  these 


Fig.    112— A    HIGH    PLACE 

The  "cathedral-altar"  of  Petra,  on  the  highest  summit  within  the  rock-city. 
In  the  top  of  the  rock  a  platform  was  sunk,  47  x  20  feet.  On  its  west  side 
two  altars  were  cut  out,  the  main  square  one  occupying  the  right  centre 
of  the  picture.  There  is  a  depression  cut  in  the  top  for  libations.  The 
dark  hole  cut  in  the  rock  to  the  left  is  a  pool,  perhaps  for  washings.  Be- 
yond this  is  a  round  altar  for  bloody  sacrifices  sunk  also  in  the  rock. 

We  must  imagine  that  a  Hebrew  high-place  was  similar,  with  the  addition  of 
stone  pillars  or  poles. 


shrines  were  a  constant  danger  to  pure  religion,  for,  though 
Jehovah  was  invariably  worshipped  there,  the  sanctuaries 
themselves  were  originally  Canaanite  or  even  prehistoric. 
They  had  been  built  for  Baals;  all  the  accompaniments  and 
traditions  of  Baal  worship  still  clung  to  them.  It  was  use- 
less to  think  of  leading  the  people  to  a  purer  worship  or  to  a 
loftier  ideal  of  Jehovah's  character  if  these  compromising 
shrines  remained.     The    simplest    and  most   thorough    pro- 


236  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

ceeding  was  to  abolish  them  entirely;  this  Josiah  did. 
He  not  only  dismantled  them,  but  polluted  the  ground  so 
that  they  could  never  be  used  for  religious  rites  again. 
High  places  ceased  forever.  Those  who  had  been  their 
priests  were  allowed  to  come  to  Jerusalem  and  serve  the 
temple  on  equal  terms  (on  paper,  at  least)  with  its  regular 
priests.  Practically,  however,  those  who  came  at  all  were 
relegated  to  second  place.  These  were  henceforth  called 
Levites. 

144.  The  Feasts  Centralized.  A  third  great  change  had 
reference  to  the  national  festival,  the  Passover.  Hitherto 
it  had  been  a  family  feast.  At  the  time  of  the  spring  moon 
every  household  throughout  the  land  had  killed  its  lamb  and 
sprinkled  the  blood  and  eaten  the  sacred  meal.  Now  all  of 
this  was  made  illegal,  and  every  one  who  wished  to  join  in  the 
rite  must  come  to  Jerusalem  to  the  great  celebration  at  the 
temple.  Josiah  inaugurated  the  new  form  of  the  Passover 
with  impressive  ceremony,  and  thus  started  that  long  series  of 
pilgrimages  that  for  seven  centuries  brought  Jews  from  the 
four  corners  of  the  earth  each  year  to  the  sacred  city,  until 
in  70  a.d.  Rome  quenched  forever  the  sacrificial  fire. 

145.  Love  the  Principle  of  Religion  and  Conduct.  The 
great  glory  of  this  reformation  and  of  the  book  that  caused 
it  rests  in  the  elevation  of  love  as  the  cardinal  principle  of 
both  religion  and  morals.  The  Hebrew  was  commanded  to 
love  Jehovah  as  the  only  God  whose  character  could  com- 
mand respect,  and  to  love  man  because  only  so  could  justice 
be  done.  All  the  heavenward-soaring  fervor  of  Hosea  and 
Isaiah  and  all  the  humane  outreachings  of  Amos  and  Micah 
here  found  expression.  Indeed,  so  wonderfully  did  these 
early  thinkers  of  Israel  penetrate  to  the  heart  of  the  uni- 
verse that  Jesus  himself  was  able  in  the  words  and  spirit  of 
this  book  to  sum  up  the  whole  of  religion: 

"Thoushalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart 
and  with  all  thy  soul  and  with  all  thy  mind  and  with  all 
thy  strength;  and  thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself." 


LOVE  IN  RELIGION  237 

It  was  to  break  from  his  countrymen  the  damning  and 
stifling  bonds  of  ceremonial  law  and  to  lead  them  back  to 
the  freedom  of  this  great  conception  of  duty  that  the  great- 
est of  prophets  gave  up  his  life. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  see  how  this  book,  so  instinct  with 
the  higher  spirit  of  religion,  was  gradually  perverted  into  an 
ironclad  set  of  religious  rules,  until  the  living  prophet  of 
God  came  to  be  of  no  account  and  the  petty,  hair-splitting 
scribe  became  the  dictator  of  a  nation's  fate.  This  was  the 
great  tragedy  of  the  Hebrew  race. 

146.  Crumbling  Empires.  Following  the  grand  revival 
came  twelve  years  of  happiness  and  prosperity,  the  noblest 
period  in  Judah's  history.  Josiah  was  himself  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  virtues  he  taught,  a  strong,  patriotic  and  high- 
minded  ruler.  Under  him  the  borders  of  Judah  were  some- 
what enlarged  until  they  included  much  of  the  land  of 
Israel,  at  least  as  far  north  as  Samaria.  But  events  without 
were  moving  swiftly  and  disastrously.  Assyria  had  passed 
her  zenith.  The  empire  of  Ashurbanipal  was  tottering 
under  the  impact  of  the  Scythians  and  of  the  Medes  who 
were  now  pressing  in  from  the  east.  Babylon  too  had  re- 
volted and  her  Assyrian  viceroy,  Xabopolassar,  had  not 
only  proclaimed  himself  king,  but  had  leagued  with  the  king 
of  the  Medes  for  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  and  the  dis- 
memberment of  her  vast  domain.  The  west  felt  instinctively 
that  things  were  about  to  happen. 

147.  Death  of  Josiah.  Egypt  now  leaped  to  a  brief 
supremacy.  The  new  dynasty  that  had  arisen  in  the  per- 
son of  Psamtik  had  been  able  by  the  aid  of  Greek  mercen- 
aries to  subjugate  all  the  land  of  the  Nile.  Necho  II,  who 
succeeded  Psamtik  in  609,  seeing  the  eagles  gathering  about 
dying  Assyria,  resolved  to  snatch  Syria  for  himself  before 
Babylon  and  Media  could  take  it.  With  his  army  he  started 
northward  in  608.  Josiah  had  been  a  faithful  vassal  of 
Nineveh,  but  he  too  read  the  handwriting  on  the  Assyrian 
wall  and  resolved  that  if  Assyria  went  to  pieces  no  king  but 


238  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

a  Hebrew  should  rule  Palestine.  He  therefore  attacked 
Necho,  determined  to  beat  him  back  to  Egypt  and  restore 
the  glories  of  an  independent  Israel.  But  Josiah's  poorly 
trained  handful  of  troops  were  no  match  for  the  disciplined 
and  skilled  Greek  soldiers  that  Necho  had  hired  and  in  the 
first  skirmish  at  Megiddo  Josiah  was  killed  by  an  arrow. 
Necho  swept  northward  victoriously  to  the  Euphrates,  while 
an  army  of  mourners  trooped  back  to  Jerusalem  with  Josiah's 
lifeless  body,  to  mingle  their  tears  with  those  of  an  agonized 
city.  The  best-beloved  ruler  Judah  ever  knew  seemed  to 
have  been  forsaken  by  the  very  God  he  had  championed,  and 
the  sun  to  have  fallen  from  the  sky. 


King  of  the  Ncrtb.       Nem-ab-Ra, 
and  s~~»»i. 

Fig.    113— NAMES    OF    PHARAOH-NECHO    II 


XXII 
THE    ROAD   TO   RUIN 

Jehoahaz  (607,  three  months),  son  of  Josiah. 
Jehoiakim  (607-597),  son  of  Josiah. 
Jehoiachin  (597,  three  months),  son  of  Jehoiakim. 
Zedekiah  (597-586),  son  of  Josiah. 
Gedaliah  (586-581). 

148.  The  Overthrow  of  Democracy.  The  tragic  death  of 
Josiah  did  not  quench  the  spirit  of  patriotism.  The  people 
promptly  put  on  the  throne  Jehoahaz,  a  younger  son  of 
Josiah's,  passing  by  the  natural  heir  evidently  because  he 
had  some  leanings  toward  Egypt.  But  Necho  did  not  pro- 
pose to  have  an  independent  Judah.  As  soon  as  he  had  se- 
cured his  hold  on  northern  Syria  he  sent  a  summons  to 
Jehoahaz  to  meet  him  at  Riblah  on  the  Orontes,  where  he 
had  made  his  headquarters.  There  he  put  him  in  chains,  and, 
after  a  reign  of  but  three  months,  sent  him  to  Egypt.  In 
his  stead  he  put  on  the  throne  of  Judah  Jehoiakim,  an  older 
son  of  Josiah's  who  was  willing  to  rule  as  a  vassal  of  Egypt. 

Jehoiakim's  first  duty  was  to  pay  Necho  a  war  indem- 
nity. He  got  the  money  by  squeezing  the  nobles,  and  they 
in  turn  promptly  squeezed  the  commoners.  It  was  a  heavy 
tax  and  the  people  suffered.  Nevertheless,  the  covetous  and 
selfish  king  proceeded  to  tax  them  further  in  order  to  build 
an  elaborate  palace  for  himself.  It  soon  became  evident 
that  the  wise  policy  of  the  just  and  pious  Josiah  had  gone 
forever.  And  the  worst  of  it  was  that  many  were  glad  of 
it,  glad  of  the  chance  to  oppress  the  under-dog  once  more 
and  to  push  their  get-rich-quick  schemes.  If  Jehovah  did 
not  like  these  schemes,  so  much  the  worse  for  Jehovah  ! 
There  were  plenty  of  other  gods  who  did  not  object.  While 
the  reforms  of  Deuteronomy  still  existed  on  paper  as  statute 

239 


240  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

law,  men  did  practically  as  they  pleased.      And  the  frivo- 
lous and  despotic  Jehoiakim  led  the  way. 

149.  The  Doom  of  Nineveh.     Beyond  Judah's  boundaries 
the  great  battle  for  empire  still  went  on.      Pharaoh-Necho 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    114— RUINS    OF    NINEVEH 

The  mounds  in  the  foreground  represent  Nineveh,  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian 
empire  from  about  900  b.c.  to  607  b.c.  What  is  the  modern  city  across 
the  Tigris?     What  significance  had  it  in  the  Great  War? 


had  made  his  little  disturbance  in  the  coast  lands,  but  the 
storm-centre  was  farther  east.  Media  and  Babylonia  had 
resolved  on  the  destruction  of  Nineveh.  The  prophet  Na- 
hum  sensed  the  coming  doom  and  sent  up  to  heaven  a  shout 
of  exultation  (Nahum  3).  That  great  city  was  about  to  be 
punished  for  its  years  of  cruelty  to  little  Israel  and  Judah. 
The  instruments  of  Jehovah's  vengeance  were  Nabopolassar 
of  Babylon  and  Cyaxares  of  Media.  Together  they  placed 
their  engines  under  the  walls  of  Nineveh,  and  the  city  fell 


THE   DOOM  OF  NINEVEH  241 

with  a  crash  that  shook  the  world  (606  B.C.).  The  two 
conquerors  then  proceeded  to  divide  the  empire,  the  Mede 
taking  the  lands  east  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Babylonian  tak- 
ing those  to  the  west.  Pharaoh-Necho  now  hastened  to  the 
Euphrates  to  defend  his  newly  conquered  possessions,  while 
the  Babylonian  crown  prince  Nebuchadrezzar  hastened  to 
meet  him.  The  hosts  clashed  at  Carchemish  (605  B.C.). 
Necho  was  routed  and  fled  southward  with  Nebuchadrezzar 
at  his  heels.  He  would  have  lost  then  and  there  his  whole 
kingdom,  including  Egypt,  had  not  Nabopolassar  happened 
to  die  and  force  Nebuchadrezzar  to  return  to  Babylon  to 
make  his  succession  sure.  But  any  one  with  discernment 
could  see  that  the  Egyptian  grip  on  Palestine  was  broken 
and  that  when  the  Babylonian  lion  chose  to  return,  all  he 
had  to  do  was  to  seize  the  prey.  The  battle  of  Carchemish 
had  made  Nebuchadrezzar  the  master  of  the  West-lands. 

150.  Jehoiakim's  Treason.  When  Jehoiakim  found  that 
his  overlord  Necho  had  been  beaten  and  was  out  of  the 
game,  he  lost  no  time  in  making  peace  with  Nebuchad- 
rezzar. The  Chaldean  took  him  and  his  money  at  their 
face  value,  and  let  him  continue  on  the  throne  as  his  vassal. 
But  Jehoiakim  intended  to  be  loyal  to  his  new  master 
only  until  he  could  find  means  to  break  away.  Those 
means  he  at  length  thought  he  had  found,  and  he  withheld 
his  tribute. 

Nebuchadrezzar  could  not,  at  the  moment,  attend  to  the 
little  rebel,  so  he  ordered  the  governors  of  the  various 
neighboring  provinces  to  let  loose  upon  Judah  bands  of 
guerilla  warriors,  Edomites,  Ammonites,  Samaritans,  and 
what  few  Chaldean  soldiers  they  could  spare  from  their 
garrisons.  These  bands  harried  the  countryside  and  drove 
many  people  into  Jerusalem,  but  they  did  not  touch  the 
arch-rebel.  In  fact,  Jehoiakim  was  destined  not  to  be  caught. 
By  the  time  Nebuchadrezzar  could  appear  in  person  with  a 
Chaldean  army,  the  king  had  died  and  his  son  Jehoiachin 
succeeded  him. 


242 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


151.  Jeremiah  the  Faithful  Counsellor.  Just  one  man  in 
all  Judah  saw  the  folly  of  this  revolt.  This  was  the  prophet 
Jeremiah,  a  native  of  little  Anathoth,  whom  the  Scythian 


i^ssw* ;  mil  mil  mii 


mWwM 


m 

From  Breasted' s  "Ancient  Times." 

Fig.    115— PLUNDER    FROM    A    CITY 

This  scene  shows  two  scribes  taking  dictations  from  an  Assyrian  officer,  who 
recounts  the  amount  of  plunder  seized  from  an  Asiatic  city.  Notice  how 
captive  women  and  children  are  treated.    A  shepherd  drives  off  the  flocks. 

Two  different  methods  of  writing  are  here  indicated  Find  the  scribe  who  is 
using  a  clay  tablet  and  stylus,  and  the  one  using  papyrus  and  pen.  Which  is 
the  outgoing  and  which  the  incoming  method  ?  (Figs.  119  and  127.)  What 
would  be  the  language  written  on  clay  and  what  the  one  on  papyrus? 


scare  (Sec.  140)  first  inspired  to  rebuke  Judah  for  its  sins 
and  who  later  moved  to  Jerusalem  where  he  might  be 
Jehovah's  watchman,  as  Isaiah  had  been.  He  warned 
the  king  to  be  faithful  to  his  Babylonian  overlord  and  com- 
bated the  crazy  notion,  inherited  from  Isaiah's  time,  that 
Jerusalem  could   never  be  taken.      But  all   to  no  purpose. 


JEREMIAH  THE  FAITHFUL  COUNSELLOR     243 

His  first  roll  of  sermons  was  cut  to  pieces  by  the  king  per- 
sonally, he  was  put  in  the  stocks,  his  life  was  plotted  against 
both  in  Anathoth  and  in  Jerusalem.  Jerusalem  was  hope- 
less in  her  follies  and  her  sins.  From  this  time  on  Jeremiah 
became  the  relentless  prophet  of  doom. 

152.  The  First  Deportation.  With  the  appearance  of 
Nebuchadrezzar  the  straits  of  Jerusalem  became  desperate. 
Within  there  was  divided  counsel,  some  boldly  proposing  to 
fight  it  out,  some  advocating  surrender.  Jeremiah  was  busy 
night  and  day  preaching  from  the  same  text  the  same  practical 
sermon:  "Judah  has  sinned  beyond  forgiveness;  Jehovah  is 
bound  to  destroy  the  city.  While  there  is  time,  make  your 
peace  with  the  king  of  Babylon."  Jehoiachin  soon  saw  the 
folly  of  resistance,  and  at  the  end  of  three  months  volun- 
tarily surrendered  himself  and  his  family  into  Nebuchad- 
rezzar's hands  (597  B.C.).  The  unfortunate  boy — for  he 
was  only  eighteen  years  old — was  sent  at  once  to  Babylon, 
where  he  passed  the  next  thirty-seven  years  in  prison. 
Nebuchadrezzar  made  a  careful  investigation  of  the  per- 
sonal resources  of  the  city,  and  in  order  to  cripple  it,  as  he 
thought  forever,  he  took  back  with  him  to  Babylon  all  the 
court,  the  aristocracy,  the  wealthy  men,  the  standing  army, 
and  the  skilled  workmen;  in  all  about  ten  or  eleven  thou- 
sand people.  The  city  was  sacked,  the  treasury  emptied, 
and  all  the  gold  and  silver  vessels  used  in  the  temple  service 
were  carried  as  prizes  to  the  gods  of  Babylon.  Jeremiah 
escaped  deportation,  possibly  because  Nebuchadrezzar  felt 
that  the  prophet  was  the  greatest  guarantee  of  future  peace 
he  could  leave  in  the  city. 

153.  The  Left-Overs.  It  is  difficult  to  realize  the  change 
that  came  over  Judah  as  a  result  of  the  deportation  of  its 
chief  men  to  Babylonia.  The  orders  of  the  conqueror  were 
quickly  carried  out;  the  prisoners  of  war  had  little  time  to 
adjust  their  affairs  and  dispose  of  their  property.  City 
houses  must  have  sold  for  a  song,  good  olive  and  fig  orchards 
and  valuable  vineyards  were  turned  over  to  the  first  bidder 


244  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

at  any  price.  In  countless  cases  there  was  no  sale  of  prop- 
erty made;  lands  and  houses  were  simply  abandoned  and 
business  firms  put  up  their  shutters  without  realizing  a  penny 
on  their  stock  or  good-will.  Those  whom  the  conqueror  left 
behind  proceeded  to  take  possession  of  what  remained. 
The  man  who  a  few  months  ago  was  worth  a  few  shekels 
of  silver,  now  found  himself  a  landed  proprietor;  the  down- 
and-out  man  suddenly  woke  up  rich.  The  men  who  grabbed 
while  the  grabbing  was  good  became  leading  citizens,  re- 
gardless of  any  personal  qualifications  for  leadership.  In 
short,  a  new  social  class  sprang  up,  the  class  of  the  newly 
rich.  They  were  ignorant,  superstitious,  of  no  ability,  and, 
as  one  might  expect  of  such  folks  suddenly  possessed  of 
wealth  and  position,  horribly  conceited,  arrogant,  intolerant. 
They  felt  that  since  Jehovah  had  punished  the  sinners  with 
exile,  they  themselves  who  had  been  spared  and  given  this 
new  start  in  the  world  must  be  the  apple  of  Jehovah's  eye. 
But  Jeremiah  sized  up  their  characteristics  in  one  graphic 
phrase,  "bad  figs."     All  the  good  figs  were  in  Babylon. 

154.  A  Vacillating  King.  Over  this  scrambling  crowd  of 
incompetents  Nebuchadrezzar  made  Zedekiah  king.  He 
was  a  son  of  Josiah  and  therefore  the  uncle  of  Jehoiachin. 
It  was  a  bad  choice,  but  possibly  the  best  that  could  be  made. 
Zedekiah  was  a  weak  man  who  listened  to  everybody's  ad- 
vice and  switched  the  policies  of  state  about  in  accordance 
with  the  latest  opinion.  While  he  himself  was  of  royal 
blood,  his  court  were  necessarily  all  common  people  without 
any  previous  experience  in  affairs  and  with  no  statesman's 
outlook  upon  the  troubled  world.  For  four  years  Zedekiah 
paid  his  tribute  regularly.  But  he  was  constantly  goaded 
by  his  upstart  court,  who  trusted  in  the  strength  of  the  de- 
fenses of  Jerusalem,  and  by  the  false  prophets  who  preached 
everywhere  Jehovah's  protection  of  his  city  and  temple;  so 
that  when  ambassadors  came  from  Moab  and  Ammon,  Tyre 
and  Sidon  to  tempt  him  to  make  secret  league  with  them,  he 
yielded;    even  the  official    prophets   of    Jehovah  joined    in 


A  VACILLATING  KING 


245 


approving  this  breach  of  honor.  ^Yhile  Zedekiah  did  not 
actually  revolt  at  this  time,  he  came  so  near  it  that  he  was 
obliged  to  go  to  Babylon  to  explain  his  conduct.  Nebuchad- 
rezzar gave  him  another  chance. 


Fig.    116— PROCESSION    OF    PRISONERS 

Taken  by  Thothmes  III  in  one  of  his  seventeen  Asiatic  campaigns  The  pris- 
oners are  brought  from  the  ship  to  the  prison-pens  at  Thebes  They  are 
in  pairs,  held  individually  by  Egyptian  servants  of  the  Pharaoh.  Of  the 
latter  note  the  carefully  arranged  hair  and  the  scant  dress  of  linen.  Study 
the  faces  of  the  prisoners.  Are  there  any  intelligent  ones  ?  Why  are  they 
all  so  old?  Note  their  long  matted  beards — an  abomination  to  the 
Egyptians — and  the  heavy  masses  of  black  hair.  Note  also  their  heavy 
dresses  made  of  gayly  colored  wool  stuff  such  as  an  Egyptian  would  never 
put  on.     Find  a  woman  carrying  two  children,  and  note  the  method. 

Processions  like  this  have  streamed  for  thousands  of  years  from  every  cap- 
tured city  to  the  capitals  of  the  conquerors. 


155.  The  Fatal  Revolt.  Four  years  later  a  new  king  of 
Egypt  arose,  Hophra  by  name,  who  actively  renewed  the  old 
intriguing.  The  pro-Egyptian  party  again  got  the  ear  of  the 
king  and  this  time  put  their  scheme  through.  Zedekiah  re- 
volted in  589.  Nebuchadrezzar  threw  his  army  into  Pales- 
tine at  once  and  tightly  encircled  Jerusalem  in  January, 
588.     Again  Jeremiah  hurled  his  denunciations  against  the 


246  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

faithless  and  foolish  king:  "What  can  you  hope  for?  Will 
Jehovah  come  to  the  rescue  of  one  who  breaks  his  oath,  and 
will  feeble  Egypt  save  you  ?  Surrender  at  once  to  Nebuchad- 
rezzar; it  is  your  only  hope."  But  the  king  had  popular 
support  and  he  stood  firm.  The  city  was  strongly  fortified, 
the  defenders  were  full  of  spirit,  and  they  felt  sure  that 
Egypt  would  come  to  their  relief.  In  order  to  insure  with- 
out fail  the  favor  of  Jehovah  they  even  set  free  all  the  He- 
brew slaves  which  many  of  them  had  been  holding  contrary 
to  the  statutes  of  the  new  law-book  (Deut.  1512"15).  Ap- 
parently Jehovah  was  well  pleased  with  this,  for  almost  im- 
mediately an  Egyptian  army  appeared  on  the  frontier  for 
their  relief,  and  Nebuchadrezzar  was  compelled  to  raise  the 
siege.  The  city  went  wild  with  joy.  Jehovah  had  again 
rescued  his  holy  city  as  he  did  in  Isaiah's  day  !  But  in  their 
enthusiasm  they  did  something  that  exposed  their  abso- 
lute lack  of  honor  even  in  dealing  with  their  God;  they  re- 
enslaved  their  Hebrew  brethren  whom  they  had  just  set 
free.  This  act  convinced  Jeremiah  that  Judah's  fate  was 
irrevocable;  she  was  not  worth  saving.  He  sent  word  to 
Zedekiah  that  Nebuchadrezzar  would  return  and  fulfil  every 
syllable  of  the  doom  Jehovah  had  pronounced. 

As  the  prophet  foresaw,  Nebuchadrezzar  scattered  the 
Egyptian  army  and  returned  to  the  siege.  Conditions  in 
Jerusalem  now  became  hopeless.  The  food-supply  soon  was 
exhausted  and  disease  broke  out.  Jeremiah  managed  some- 
how to  get  out  of  jail,  where  his  enemies  had  put  him,  but 
they  arrested  him  again  on  the  charge  that  his  constant 
advice  to  surrender  was  weakening  the  defense  of  the  city — 
as  it  certainly  was.  This  time  they  put  him  into  an  old 
cistern  full  of  filth,  where  he  nearly  died.  But  a  negro  slave 
took  pity  on  him  and  pulled  him  out,  though  he  could  not 
set  him  free.  Again  the  distracted  king  asked  for  an  oracle 
of  hope,  but  again  came  the  stern  word,  coupled  neverthe- 
less with  the  assurance  that  Jerusalem  should  one  day  rise 
from  its  ashes  and  be  again  the  home  of  Jehovah's  true  wor- 
shippers. 


THE  FATAL  REVOLT 


247. 


Fig.    117— JEREMIAH    AT    THE    FALL    OF   JERUSALEM 

By  Eduard  Friedrich  Bendemann  (1811-1889) 

Find  the  following:  troops  blowing  trumpets  of  victory,  runners  throwing  palm 
branches,  the  conqueror  (what  is  in  his  hand?),  king  Zedekiah  bound  to  a 
chariot,  the  captive  ark,  the  smoking  ruins  of  the  temple,  priests,  soldiers 
lashing  trains  of  captives  (what  are  the  prisoners  carrying?),  Jeremiah, 
Baruch  (why  have  they  rolls?),  chained  musician  and  other  men  (what 
are  they  doing?).  Why  are  women  and  children  fleeing  toward  Jeremiah? 
A  man  and  a  child,  fallen  in  the  foreground,  are  symbols  of  what?  Why 
is  Jeremiah  so  calm  in  the  midst  of  the  confusion?     Read  his  thoughts. 


156.  The  Capture  and  Destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The 
morale  of  the  city  now  began  to  break.  The  timid  ones  be- 
gan to  steal  out  by  night  and  surrender  themselves  to  the 
tender    mercies    of    Nebuchadrezzar.      The    battering-rams 


248  THE   HEBREW  COMMON  WEALTH 

thundered  unceasingly  against  the  northern  wall  until  in 
July,  586,  after  a  siege  of  a  year  and  a  half,  a  breach  was 
made  and  the  enemy  poured  in.  The  panic-stricken  king 
fled  with  his  guards  by  the  opposite  gates  southeastward, 
and  did  their  best  to  reach  the  Jordan  and  the  safety  of  the 
desert.  But  the  Chaldeans  were  not  to  be  balked.  They 
overtook  the  company  at  Jericho  and  carried  them  to  Riblah 
on  the  Orontes  where  Nebuchadrezzar  had  his  headquarters. 
The  king's  sons  were  killed  in  his  presence,  his  own  eyes  were 
put  out,  and  they  all  were  carried  in  chains  to  Babylon. 
To  awe  the  nation  still  further,  seventy  of  the  leading  citi- 
zens were  also  taken  to  Riblah  and  put  to  death.  Jeremiah 
was  brought  before  the  authorities  and  questioned;  but  the 
Chaldeans  evidently  knew  all  about  him  and  gave  him  the 
choice  of  going  to  Babylon  or  staying  behind.  He  chose  to 
stay. 

At  Nebuchadrezzar's  order  the  Chaldean  soldiers  then 
stripped  the  city  of  everything  of  value,  even  breaking  up 
the  brass  of  the  temple  equipment.  They  burned  the  royal 
palace,  the  temple,  and  many  of  the  private  houses;  they 
broke  down  the  walls  so  that  they  might  never  again  harbor 
a  revolt,  and  they  carried  into  exile  nearly  the  entire  popu- 
lation of  the  city,  possibly  25,000  people.  What  was  left  in 
Judah  was  the  poorest  of  the  land — the  dregs,  as  far  as 
energy  and  wealth  and  brains  were  concerned,  leaderless 
groups  of  peasants,  to  be  sure  far  outnumbering  the  35,000 
who  had  been  deported  in  the  two  great  siftings,  but  disor- 
ganized and  discouraged. 

157.  Judah  Becomes  a  Babylonian  Colony.  Nebuchad« 
rezzar  had  no  thought  of  depopulating  Palestine  and  letting 
it  fall  back  into  the  jungle,  but  only  of  breaking  the  power 
of  the  land  to  revolt  again.  To  keep  up  some  form  of  or- 
ganization he  appointed  one  Gedaliah  as  governor  (586 
B.C.),  a  man  of  noble  birth  and  a  friend  of  Jeremiah.  It 
speaks  well  for  Nebuchadrezzar's  friendly  attitude  that  he 
should  choose  a  native  rather  than  a  Chaldean.     Gedaliah 


JUDAH  A  BABYLONIAN  COLONY  249 

was  the  best  possible  choice.  He  was  a  man  of  character 
and  of  a  conciliatory  spirit.  Since  Jerusalem  was  no  longer 
habitable,  he  chose  for  his  capital  the  tall  hill  of  Mizpah, 
six  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem.  Thither  came  the  heads 
of  the  wandering  guerilla  bands  and  the  sheiks  of  the  coun- 
try villages  to  swear  allegiance  to  the  new  government. 
Gedaliah  induced  the  scattered  peasants  to  return  to  their 
homes  and  to  undertake  again  the  cultivation  of  the  soil. 
Many  who  had  fled  to  Moab,  Ammon,  and  Edom  came  back 
to  share  in  the  process  of  rebuilding  the  nation. 

Things  went  excellently  for  a  few  years,  when  suddenly  a 
rascal  who  claimed  to  have  descended  from  David  and  there- 
fore to  have  a  better  title  to  rule,  encouraged  by  the  jealous 
king  of  the  Ammonites,  murdered  the  unsuspecting  Gedaliah 
(581  B.C.).  This  threw  the  community  into  a  panic.  They 
feared  that  now  Nebuchadrezzar  would  certainly  blot  them 
off  the  map.  After  a  few  days  of  chaos  the  more  energetic 
among  them  fled  to  Egypt,  taking  Jeremiah  with  them  by 
force.  They  settled  for  a  while  in  the  town  of  Tahpanhes, 
a  frontier  city  where  foreigners  of  various  kinds  were  al- 
lowed to  live.  Jeremiah  felt  that  even  so  they  would  not 
escape  the  heavy  hand  of  the  Chaldean,  for  he  predicted  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  by  Nebuchadrezzar.  The  prophet  was 
shocked  also  at  the  ease  with  which  his  fellow  exiles  threw 
away  Jehovah  and  took  up  with  any  heathen  god  that  was 
offered  them.  The  last  cry  that  has  come  down  to  us  from 
Jeremiah's  lips  is  his  bitter  denunciation  of  the  idolatry  of 
this  Egyptian  remnant.  A  late  tradition  says  that  for  his 
faithfulness  to  the  truth  he  was  stoned  to  death  by  his  own 
people. 

158.  Jeremiah's  Career.  No  one  can  study  the  history 
of  this  period  without  forming  the  judgment  that  Jeremiah 
was  the  noblest  patriot  and  the  greatest  prophet  of  his 
epoch.  For  nearly  a  half-century  his  personality  completely 
overshadowed  that  of  kings,  prophets,  and  priests.  Called 
in  his  youth  to  interpret  the  will  of  God  to  man,  throughout 


250  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

his  long  life  he  spoke  unflinchingly  what  seemed  to  him  the 
truth,  even  though  his  voice  sounded  alone  and  though  the 
truth  brought  him  persecution,  disgrace,  and  martyrdom. 
With  the  grasp  of  a  statesman  he  saw  the  certain  trend  of 
world  politics,  he  assessed  the  true  weight  of  world-powers 
that  struggled  for  the  mastery,  and  he  announced  as  Je- 
hovah's will  those  policies  that  would  have  kept  little  Judah 
in  peace  and  safety.  With  the  insight  of  a  prophet,  also,  he 
saw  that  what  his  country  needed  was  morality  founded  on 
true  religion:  a  morality  that  would  bind  men  to  their  duty, 
to  their  covenants  and  to  their  fellow  men;  a  religion  that 
would  enthrone  Jehovah  as  the  only  God  and  worship  him 
not  with  the  debased  and  half-heathen  ritual  that  was  used 
even  in  the  reformed  temple,  but  with  the  sincere  love  of  the 
heart.  These  teachings  were  not  popular;  they  did  not  tickle 
the  vanity  or  fill  the  pockets  of  either  king  or  commoners, 
and  in  the  strenuous  times  of  war  they  sounded  like  treason. 
Hence  his  lifelong  martyrdom,  a  martyrdom  that  so  im- 
pressed succeeding  generations  that  Jeremiah  became  for 
them  the  embodiment  of  the  heroic  and  self-sacrificing  genius 
of  Israel.  His  character  and  services  were  undoubtedly  in 
the  mind  of  the  great  prophet  who  painted  the  matchless  por- 
trait of  the  suffering  servant  of  Jehovah: 

"He  was  despised  and  rejected  of  men;  a  man  of  sorrows 
and  acquainted  with  grief;  and  as  one  from  whom  men  hide 
their  face  he  was  despised  and  we  esteemed  him  not.  Surely 
he  hath  borne  our  griefs  and  carried  our  sorrows;  yet  we  did 
esteem  him  stricken,  smitten  of  God,  and  afflicted.  But  he 
was  wounded  for  our  transgressions,  he  was  bruised  for  our 
iniquities;  the  chastisement,  of  our  peace  was  upon  him,  and 
with  his  stripes  we  are  healed." 

If  this  noble  soul  could  still  follow  after  his  martyrdom  the 
fortunes  of  his  people  and  could  see  his  truth  march  on  to  the 
end  of  time,  cheering,  inspiring,  guiding  men  into  fuller 
faith,  he  might  well  appropriate  to  himself  those  closing 
verses  of  the  same  great  elegy: 


JEREMIAH'S  CAREER  251 

"  When  thou  shalt  make  his  soul  an  offering  for  sin,  he 
shall  see  his  seed,  he  shall  prolong  his  days,  and  the  pleasure 
of  Jehovah  shall  prosper  in  his  hand.  He  shall  see  of  the 
travail  of  his  soul  and  shall  be  satisfied."  - 


XXIII 
TRANSFORMATIONS  BY  THE  RIVERS  OF  BABYLON 

159.  The  Scattered  Nation.  The  Hebrew  people  were 
by  no  means  annihilated  by  the  fearful  experiences  through 
which  they  had  passed.  Northern  Israel,  to  be  sure,  was 
now  being  absorbed  by  the  races  among  whom  the  Assyrian 
had  scattered  it,  and  it  was  destined  never  to  reappear  in 
history  as  an  independent  nation;  but  Judah  was  still  living, 
though  torn  into  three  parts. 

The  Palestine  Fragment.  The  largest  of  these  three  parts 
was  still  to  be  found  in  Palestine.  When  conquerors  carried 
people  away,  as  Sargon  and  Nebuchadrezzar  had  done,  they 
took  the  city  dwellers,  those  who  had  amassed  wealth  or 
acquired  skill  in  workmanship  and  trading,  or  had  been  con- 
nected with  the  king  and  the  aristocratic  families.  They 
hardly  touched  the  poor  or  the  country  dwellers.  These 
latter,  scattered  like  sheep  without  a  shepherd,  had  to  shift 
for  themselves.  And  a  difficult  time  they  had  of  it,  between 
earning  a  living  in  a  devastated  country  and  defending 
themselves  from  enemies  who  now  swept  in  from  the  borders 
to  pick  up  the  lands  and  the  opportunities  which  the  exiles 
had  left  behind.  Ammonites,  Moabites,  Philistines,  and 
Edomites  all  swarmed  in;  and  besides  plundering  and  set- 
tling they  took  dire  vengeance  on  the  defenseless  Judeans 
for  the  raids  they  and  their  ancestors  had  suffered  under 
Judean  kings.  The  Edomites  were  particularly  cruel  and 
aggressive,  partly  because  they  were  being  pressed  out  of 
their  own  lands  by  the  desert  Nabateans,  and  they  seized 
southern  Judea  as  far  north  as  Hebron.  Ezekiel,  the  priest 
who  had  been  carried  with  the  exiles  to  Babylon  and  there 
became    their   pastor,    utters    a    curse    upon    the    Edomites 


THE  PALESTINE  FRAGMENT 


253 


(Ezek.  2512"14),  as  indeed  he  does  upon  all  the  invading  na- 
tions. This  group  of  peasant  Hebrews  nevertheless  survived 
and  became  an  important  factor  in  Jewish  life  after  the  re- 
turn from  exile. 

160.  The  Egyptian  Fragment.     The  next  largest  group  of 
Hebrews  was  to  be  found  in  Egypt.     A  considerable  body  had 


From  Breasted' s  "Ancient  Times." 

Fig.    118— RUINS    OF    ELEPHANTINE 

This  town  was  built  on  an  island  in  the  Nile  about  four  miles  north  of  the 
first  cataract.  Some  of  these  houses  are  as  old  as  the  twenty-seventh 
century  b.c.  How  does  it  happen  that  buildings  of  sun-dried  brick  and 
documents  of  fragile  papyrus  have  been  so  long  preserved  ? 

To  this  island  came  Jews  in  the  days  of  Nebuchedrezzar  or  earlier,  and  formed 
an  enterprising  commercial  colony.  Later  exiles  increased  their  number  to 
six  or  seven  hundred.  They  built  here  a  stone  temple  to  Jehovah.  This 
temple  was  destroyed  by  a  mob  led  by  jealous  Egyptian  priests,  and  its 
gold  and  silver  vessels  were  stolen  in  the  year  400  b.c,  as  is  shown  by  the 
letter  in  Fig.  119. 


fled  thither  after  the  assassination  of  Gedaliah  (Sec.  157), 
taking  the  prophet  Jeremiah  with  them.  These  settled  in 
the  frontier  towns  of  Tahpanhes  and  Migdol,  both  fortress 
cities  on  the  main  highway  between  Egypt  and  Palestine; 
but  when  the  Pharaoh  Amasis  withdrew  trading  privileges 


254  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

from  tJie  foreigners  in  these  towns  in  564  B.C.,  the  Hebrews 
either  returned  to  Palestine  or  joined  others  of  their  nation 
in  upper  Egypt.  Of  the  existence  of  these  other  Hebrews  in 
Egypt  we  now  have  ample  evidence.  Not  only  do  Jeremiah 
and  Ezekiel  refer  to  colonists  in  Memphis  and  Pathros 
(upper  Egypt),  but  recent  discoveries  on  an  island  in  the 
Nile  River  opposite  Assuan  confirm  the  fact  that  there  was 
for  more  than  a  century  a  flourishing  settlement  there.  The 
people  had  doubtless  filtered  in  in  small  groups  throughout 
the  period  of  the  later  Judean  kings,  attracted  by  greater 
chances  for  wealth  and  comfort  and  peace  than  troublous 
Palestine  could  afford. 

The  discoveries  include  legal  documents  of  various  kinds, 
contracts,  bills  of  sale,  marriage  records,  and  letters.  One 
remarkable  letter,  dated  November,  408  B.C.,  asks  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Persian  governor  of  Judea — Bagohi  by  name 
— in  rebuilding  the  temple  of  Jahu  (Jehovah)  which  a  recent 
outbreak  of  foreigners  had  destroyed.  This  temple,  which  is 
described  as  of  considerable  architectural  worth,  proves  that 
within  a  generation  after  the  destruction  of  Solomon's  temple 
at  Jerusalem  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt  were  an  influential  peo- 
ple, and  it  furnishes  us  with  an  explanation  why  in  the  time 
of  Christ  Alexandria  in  Egypt  could  become  the  chief  seat  of 
Jewish  commercial  power  and  the  intellectual  centre  of  the 
Jewish  world. 

161.  The  Home  of  the  Exiles  in  Babylonia.  The  third  and 
smallest  group  of  Hebrews — the  Judeans  or  Jews,  as  we  must 
henceforth  call  them — was  the  band  of  exiles  transplanted  by 
the  rivers  of  Babylon.  Practically  all  of  the  wealth  and  cul- 
ture, the  brains  and  skill  of  the  Jewish  race  was  here,  and 
on  this  soil  grew  those  ideas  and  ideals  that  were  destined  to 
control  the  Jewish  world  down  to  our  day.  This  group  de- 
serves our  extended  attention. 

As  a  place  to  live  in,  Babylonia  was  far  better  than  Pales- 
tine. Instead  of  a  mountainous  country  where  only  by 
incessant  terracing  and  cultivating  one  might  wrest  a  living 


THE   EXILES   IN   BABYLONIA  255 

from  the  soil,  the  Jews  now  possessed  a  rich  alluvial  plain 
where  crops  grew  almost  of  themselves.  A  stable  govern- 
ment under  wise  kings  had  created  and  preserved  impressive 
irrigation  works  for  the  benefit  of  all.     Great  reservoirs  like 


flfo 


V1»tV^ 


From  Breasted' s  "Ancient  Times." 

Fig.    119— ARAMAIC    LETTER    FROM    EGYPT 

A  piece  of  papyrus  discovered  in  1907  in  the  ruins  of  Elephantine  (Fig.  118). 
The  letter  tells  of  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  temple  of  Jehovah  and 
requests  the  Persian  governor  of  Palestine  to  use  his  influence  with  the 
Persian  governor  of  Egypt  to  allow  the  Jews  to  rebuild.  What  is  papyrus  ? 
Why  should  the  letter  not  be  written  in  Hebrew  (Sec.  192)  ?  Compare  the 
characters  with  that  of  Fig.  100. 


that  near  Sippar,  huge  navigable  canals  like  the  Kabaru 
(the  river  Chebar  of  Ezekiel)  that  ran  southeast  from  Baby- 
lon to  Nippur,  and  smaller  intersecting  canals  that  meshed 
the  whole  plain,  were  both  life-bringers  to  the  soil  and  arteries 
of  traffic.    In  the  midst  of  this  richness  the  Jewish  exiles  were 


256  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

transplanted,  with  their  families  and  social  bonds  hardly  at 
all  disturbed.  They  lived  on  little  tels  or  artificial  mounds 
made  by  the  ruins  of  former  cities,  each  named  in  some 
fanciful  way,  as  Storm  Hill,  Salt  Hill,  Eorest  Hil.1,  and  from 
these  they  went  forth  each  day  to  cultivate  the  surrounding 
fields.  Though  part  of  the  time  they  had  to  toil  for  the 
Babylonian  monarch,  the  Jews  ought  to  have  been  relatively 
happy.  So  long  as  they  paid  the  imperial  tax  and  kept  the 
peace  they  were  free  to  keep  up  their  customs  and  religion, 
to  rear  and  educate  their  children,  to  traffic  here  and  there, 
and  even  to  rise  to  positions  of  responsibility  in  the  govern- 
ment. Jeremiah  told  them  that  they  were  well  off  and  ad- 
vised them  to  settle  down  to  business  and  grow  rich  (Jer. 
295).  There  was  only  one  restriction:  they  could  not  return 
to  Palestine. 

162.  Their  Cultural  Environment.  To  be  suddenly  trans- 
ferred from  the  border  to  the  centre  of  great  affairs  was  an 
experience  likely  to  shock  into  life  whatever  latent  powers  the 
Jews  possessed.  Hitherto  they  had  been  outsiders,  plotting 
against  a  government  of  which  they  knew  only  its  armed 
strength;  now  they  were  living  in  the  midst  of  a  civilization 
that  touched  all  the  interests  of  life.  They  now  saw  the 
great  Nebuchadrezzar  not  as  a  conqueror  but  as  an  admin- 
istrator. They  saw  him  give  laws  to  a  hundred  provinces, 
and  rule  a  court  where  thousands  of  officials  transacted  the 
business  of  a  vast  empire.  They  saw  him  foster  the  welfare 
of  his  people  by  devotion  to  agriculture  and  commerce, 
establishing  his  throne  upon  a  foundation  of  wealth  and 
loyalty  rather  than  upon  the  force  of  arms  alone.  They 
saw  him  rebuild  and  adorn  Babylon  and  surround  it  by  a 
double  wall,  the  outer  one  fifty  miles  in  circumference,  de- 
fended by  countless  towers,  broad  enough  at  the  top  for  four 
chariots  to  drive  abreast.  They  saw  him  dedicate  his  sanc- 
tuary of  Bel  the  sun-god — a  huge  pyramid  of  brick  roofed 
with  cedar  of  Lebanon  and  adorned  with  gold.  They  looked 
with  wonder  at  his  palace,  decorated  everywhere  with  brilli- 


THEIR  CULTURAL  ENVIRONMENT  257 


From  Breasted' s  "Ancient  Times." 

Fir,.    120— MAP    OP    BABYLON 

Observe  the  great  size  of  Babylon  as  compared  with  the  cities  of  Palestine 
(Figs.  13,  37,  77,  etc.).  Find  the  former  channel  of  the  Euphrates,  the 
site  of  Fig.  121  and  the  site  of  Fig.  123.  The  Hanging  Gardens  (Fig.  123) 
were  within  the  palace  enclosure.  The  city  wall  also  enclosed  a  large 
space  on  the  other  side  of  the  river. 


THEIR  CULTURAL  ENVIRONMENT  259 

antly  colored  tiles  arranged  in  pictures  and  geometric  de- 
signs, vast  enough  to  form  an  exhaustless  quarry  of  bricks 
for  succeeding  generations.  They  gazed  with  awe  at  the 
hanging  gardens  he  built  to  solace  his  Median  wife  for  the 
loss  of  the  mountains  of  her  childhood,  itself  a  mountain 
built  in  terraces  of  brick,  each  terrace  capped  with  a  sheet 
of  lead  and  a  layer  of  earth,  then  planted  with  trees  and 
flowers.  On  the  topmost  terrace  shone  a  palace  for  the 
queen. 

These  symbols  of  wealth  and  power  opened  the  eyes  of 
the  Jews.  They  saw  the  advantages  that  went  with  citizen- 
ship in  such  an  empire,  the  possibilities  that  lay  for  them  in 
education,  commerce,  government;  and  many  of  them  re- 
sponded with  a  vigor  that  has  always  been  a  badge  of  their 
race.  The  exile  therefore  was  for  the  Jews  a  period  of  radical 
transformation.  It  wrought  a  fundamental  change  in  their 
point  of  view,  so  that  instead  of  being  provincial  and  local  in 
their  interests  they  became  interested  in  the  whole  world; 
and  a  change  in  their  dominant  activities  from  agricultural 
to  commercial.  The  impression  then  stamped  upon  the 
national  character  has  never  faded  out.  The  Jews  have  from 
that  day  to  this  been  citizens  of  the  world;  they  have  power- 
fully shaped  its  history  and  largely  dominated  its  commerce. 
Nearly  every  age  has  had  its  Disraeli  and  its  Rothschild. 

163.  Their  Religious  Transformation.  The  most  remark- 
able change  that  the  Jews  underwent  was  in  their  religion. 
They  lost  one  faith  and  found  another.  Or  more  accurately, 
the  ideas  they  once  held  about  Jehovah  and  his  relation  to 
his  chosen  people  gave  place,  under  the  preaching  of  the 
prophets  and  the  stern  trend  of  events,  to  those  that  were 


The  towers  of  this  gate  are  the  largest  and  most  striking  of  the  ruins  of  old 
Babylon.  They  are  nearly  40  feet  high  and  covered  with  reliefs  in  brick, 
some  plain  and  some  of  colored  enamel.  Bulls  and  griffins  alternate,  575 
of  them,  each  about  a  yard  high.  The  bull  was  sacred  to  Ramman,  the 
weather-god,  and  the  griffin — a  walking  serpent  with  scaly  coat  and  tail, 
and  the  head  with  a  forked  tongue — was  the  emblem  of  Marduk,  the  great 
god  of  Babylon.     Nebuchadrezzar  was  the  builder,  about  600  b.c. 


2G0 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


broader  and  more  spiritual,  more  humble  and  vet  more  am- 
bitious. Jehovah,  the  old  national  deity  whose  worship  had 
been  exclusively  theirs  since  Moses'  time,  was  now  seen  to 
be  the  God  of  the  whole  earth,  whom  any  nation  might  wor- 
ship.    The  disasters  that  had  fallen  upon  their  nation  were 


Fig.    122 — COLORED    BRICK    LION 

One  of  the  many  lions  built  into  the  wall  bounding  the  street  of  Babylon  that 
led  to  the  Ishtar  gate.  The  road  was  made  by  Nebuchadrezzar  for  the 
processionals  of  the  god  Marduk.  The  lions  advance  to  meet  the  pro- 
cessions. Some  are  white  with  yellow  manes,  others  yellow  with  red 
manes.  The  background  is  light  or  dark  blue.  Each  lion  is  six  feet  long 
and  there  are  sixty  of  them  on  each  side  of  the  street. 


the  means  by  which  God  was  purifying  tbem  for  a  great 
spiritual  task;  and  that  task  was  to  make  God  and  his  ser- 
vice known  to  all  men.  Religion  became  the  chief  end  and 
occupation  of  life  for  many  of  the  Jews,  the  true  Israel  be- 
came a  nation  of  priests,  the  state  became  a  church,  Israelit- 
ism  became  Judaism. 

To  be  sure,  all  the  Jews  in  Babylonia  did  not  experience 
this  change.  The  fascination  of  the  splendid  ritual  of  Bel 
worship  took  some  away;  some  married  Babylonian  wives 
and  drifted  into  heathenism;  some  became  absorbed  in  busi- 
ness, and  the  growing  pile  of  shekels  hid  from  their  sight 


THEIR  RELIGIOUS  TRANSFORMATION        261 

gods  of  every  kind.  So  the  sifting  process  that  began  genera- 
tions before,  even  in  Elijah's  day,  continued  through  the 
exile  and  after,  until  only  the  most  intensely  religious  na- 
tures were  left  to  form  the  Judaism  of  the  latter  days. 


Fig.  123— HANGING  GARDENS  OP  BABYLON 

An  imaginative  reconstruction. 

Built  by  Nebuchadrezzar  to  please  his  Median  wife.  Find  the  queen;  the 
river  Euphrates.  The  elephant  and  the  camels  are  supposed  to  be  alive; 
other  animals  are  statues.     Does  such  a  structure  seem  improbable? 


164.  Biblical  Testimony  to  the  Change.  As  we  read  cer- 
tain portions  of  the  Bible  we  can  see  this  change  in  thought 
clearly  reflected.  In  the  book  of  Lamentations  (e.  g., 
chaps.  1  and  2)  we  look  upon  the  horrors  of  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem  and  hear  the  groans  of  a  people  who  are  being 
despoiled  of  their  land  and  their  God.     It  is  the  cry  of  cap- 


262  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

tives  who  are  leaving  behind  all  that  they  hold  dear;  the 
wail  of  the  deported  and  the  hopeless,  conscious  only  of  their 
grief.  In  such  Psalms  as  the  one  hundred  and  thirty-seventh 
we  see  the  first  recovery  from  the  shock,  the  sullen  anger  that 
will  not  permit  them  to  enter  into  the  life  of  their  captors 
but  that  curses  the  conqueror  and  longs  for  revenge: 

"O  daughter  of  Babylon — happy  shall  he  be  that  re- 
wardeth  thee  as  thou  hast  served  us. 
Happy  shall  he  be  that  taketh  and  dasheth  thy  little 
ones  against  the  rock." 

Now  the  voice  of  another  psalmist  is  heard  (Ps.  130) 
calling  from  the  depths  of  repentance  to  a  God  who  can  for- 
give iniquity;  for  the  consciousness  that  the  prophets  of  old 
were  right  and  that  Judah  has  brought  this  catastrophe  upon 
herself  has  dawned  upon  him: 

"If  thou,  Jehovah,  shouldst  mark  iniquities, 
O  Lord,  who  could  stand  ? 
But  there  is  forgiveness  with  thee! 

My  soul  waiteth  for  the  Lord 

More  than  watchmen  for  the  morning." 

As  if  in  answer  to  this  prayer  the  prophet  Ezekiel  has  a 
vision.  He  sees  a  valley  full  of  dry  bones  (Ezek.  371"14).  At 
the  word  of  his  prophecy  the  breath  of  the  Lord  blows  upon 
them,  and  the  men  once  dead  rise  again  a  mighty  host. 
Even  thus  shall  Jehovah  become  Judah 's  savior: 

"  I  will  put  my  spirit  in  you  and  you  shall  live,  and  I  will 
place  you  in  your  own  land;  and  you  shall  know  that  I,  Je- 
hovah, have  spoken  it  and  shall  perform  it." 

While  Judah  is  still  incredulous  that  help  will  come,  an  un- 
known prophet  (Isaiah  211"10)  scans  the  horizon  and  discovers 
world  events  that  promise  restoration  to  God's  people.  From 
Elam  and  Media  in  the  east  comes  the  sound  of  rumbling 


THE   BIBLICAL  TESTIMONY 


263 


Fig.    124— PORTRAIT    OF    CYRUS 

The  oldest  known  relic  of  Persian  sculpture,  set  up  about  538  b.c.  at  the  royal 
residence  of  Cyrus,  Pasargadae  (Murghab),  after  he  had  conquered  Baby- 
lonia. Note  that  the  features  are  not  Semitic  but  Aryan.  The  crown 
Cyrus  wears  is  borrowed  from  Egypt  and  the  four  wings  are  those  of  an 
Assyrian  cherub  {cf.  Ezek.  I5-9). 


264  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

chariots  and  trampling  horsemen.  Like  a  whirlwind  these 
forces  gather  and  sweep  on  toward  Babylon.  They  smite 
that  great  city  with  its  gods  and  scatter  it  as  dust  of  the 
thrashing-floor.  But  the  winnowed  grain  of  Judah  shall  not 
be  harmed;  rather  it  shall  be  precious  seed  for  a  new  sowing. 
So  grief  has  passed  through  the  phases  of  revenge  and  re- 
pentance to  hope,  and  hope  shall  some  day  become  a  vision 
of  service  and  blessing. 

165.  The  Master  Mind  of  the  Exile.  The  master  mind  of 
the  age  was  Ezekiel.  He  was  a  prophet  by  nature  and  a 
priest  by  education;  a  man  of  insight  into  spiritual  values 
and  a  planner  of  definite  methods  for  the  expression  and  cul- 
tivation of  religion.  He  dealt  with  the  specific  problems  of 
his  fellow  exiles,  analyzed  the  present  situation  as  due  to 
the  inefficiency  and  greed  and  oppression  of  Judah's  earlier 
rulers,  cheered  the  people  with  promises  of  God's  help, 
cursed  their  foes  for  them,  pictured  the  glories  of  Palestine 
when  God  should  miraculously  reclothe  it  with  verdure  for 
their  use,  and  drew  up  an  elaborate  and  detailed  plan  for  a 
rebuilded  city  and  temple  and  for  a  temple  ritual.  In  his 
view  the  whole  nation,  from  prince  and  high  priest  down  to 
the  humblest  Levite,  should  exist  for  the  worship  of  God. 
Feasts  and  holy  days,  processions  and  sacrifices  were  all  out- 
lined, with  the  Sabbath  the  crowning  day  of  all  the  week. 
It  was  Ezekiel  who  found  the  practical  means  by  which  a 
people  who  had  ceased  to  exist  as  a  state  could  still  survive 
as  a  church.  The  Judaism  of  the  next  four  centuries  was  the 
creation  largely  of  this  genius. 

166.  The  Literary  Activity  of  the  Exile.  Other  minds  in 
this  period  were  keenly  alive  to  the  necessity  of  preserving  Is- 
rael's religion  and  teaching  the  lessons  that  the  disastrous 
past  and  present  were  meant  to  convey.  Their  method  was 
that  of  history  writing.  They  took  the  old  stories  that  were 
common  property  of  the  Hebrews,  the  hero-tales,  state 
chronicles    and   folk-songs   that   already   had    been   written 


LITERARY  ACTIVITY  OF  THE  EXILE        265 

down  in  a  masterly  way  in  earlier  days,  and  set  them  into 
a  framework  of  moral  interpretation  where  we  find  them 
to-day — the  books  of  Deuteronomy,  Judges,  Samuel,  and 
Kings.  The  portraits  and  stories  of  the  past  now  become  the 
text  of  sermons  intended  to  show  how  Jehovah  had  always 
rewarded  faithfulness  and  always  punished  sin.  The  work  of 
these  unknown  editors  changed  a  book  of  history  into  a 
Bible;  took  facts  and  showed  their  meaning  and  moral  value, 
so  that  all  who  read  might  shape  their  own  conduct  more 
righteously.  We  must  therefore  class  these  unknown  hum- 
ble writers  among  the  permanent  benefactors  of  the  race; 
for  certainly  no  book  of  history  ever  written  has  had  a  frac- 
tion of  the  influence  exerted  by  the  Old  Testament  narra- 
tives. 

167.  The  Rise  of  the  Synagogue.  During  the  dark  days 
of  the  exile  was  born  an  institution  that  was  destined  to  have 
the  greatest  conceivable  influence  in  shaping  the  thought  and 
life  of  Jews.  It  was  the  synagogue.  Bereft  now  of  their 
homeland,  of  their  rulers  and  their  temple,  the  people  reas- 
serted in  a  new  and  purer  form  the  democratic  instincts  that 
even  overwhelming  calamities  had  not  been  able  to  crush  out. 
Each  community  became  responsible  for  its  own  spiritual  and, 
to  an  extent,  its  political  life.  On  the  returning  Sabbaths  all 
the  people  came  together  in  an  assembly  in  some  specific 
place  or  building,  and  there  the  law  and  the  prophets  were 
read,  instruction  was  given,  alms  were  received  and  dis- 
tributed, and  the  spirit  of  religion  and  brotherhood  was  kept 
alive.  The  name  synagogue  was  applied  to  the  institution 
itself  or  to  the  building  in  which  the  meetings  were  held. 
The  synagogue  was  under  the  supervision  of  the  elders  in 
general  and  of  a  ruler  of  the  synagogue  in  particular.  When 
the  Jews  returned  to  Palestine  they  took  this  institution 
with  them.  Every  village  of  Palestine  came  in  time  to  have 
one;  and  when  the  nation  was  dispersed  in  Persian,  Greek 
and  Roman  times,  in  fact  even  down  to  the  present  day, 


266  THE  HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH 

wherever  the  Jew  went,  with  him  went  the  synagogue. 
From  India  to  Spain  and  San  Francisco  synagogues  to-day 
bear  witness  to  the  existence  of  that  fraternal  democracy 
where  all  are  equal  under  the  law. 


XXIV 
CYRUS  AND  THE  FAITHFUL  PATRIOTS 

168.  The  Rise  of  Cyrus.  When  the  great  Nebuchadrezzar 
died  there  were  only  feeble  hands  to  grasp  his  sceptre.  A 
succession  of  weak  monarchs  followed,  the  last  of  whom  was 
more  of  an  antiquarian  than  a  ruler;  for  while  he  dug  over 
ruins  and  restored  ancient  temples,  his  son  Belshazzar  at- 
tended to  affairs  of  state.  This  is  why  the  book  of  Daniel 
(chap.  5)  calls  Belshazzar  king. 

But  while  the  power  of  Babylon  waned,  a  new  star  was 
rising  on  the  eastern  horizon.  It  was  Cyrus,  king  of  a  little 
province  called  Anshan,  a  dependency  of  Media  east  of  the 
Zagros  mountains.  Cyrus  revolted  against  his  overlord 
Astyages,  doubtless  for  good  reasons;  and  when  the  two 
armies  came  together,  the  army  of  the  Mede  went  over  in  a 
body  to  Cyrus,  taking  its  king  along  as  prisoner.  Thus  in 
the  year  549  B.C.  Cyrus  without  a  blow  became  master  of 
the  Median  empire  with  its  capital  city  Ecbatana  and  its 
treasure.  This  empire  comprised  modern  Persia,  northern 
Assyria,  Armenia,  and  part  of  Asia  Minor  as  far  west  as  the 
river  Halys.  Treating  the  Medes  as  allies  rather  than  a  con- 
quered people,  he  held  his  course  westward,  seized  northern 
Mesopotamia  and  attacked  Croesus,  the  rich  king  of  Lydia 
who  barred  his  way  to  the  sea.  Having  conquered  him  he 
made  his  capital,  Sardis,  the  chief  seat  of  power  in  the  west, 
and  from  that  base  subdued  the  Greek  colonists  that  fringed 
the  western  border  of  Asia.  In  three  years  he  had  become 
master  of  nearly  all  southwestern  Asia  from  the  river  Indus 
to  the  J^gean. 

Cyrus  next  turned  to  Babylon  which  alone  stood  in  the 
way  of  a  united  Asiatic  empire.     In  539  b.c.  he  appeared 

267 


268  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

before  its  gates,  having  been  invited,  it  is  said,  by  the  priest- 
hood of  that  city  who  were  disgusted  with  the  way  their 
king  had  honored  other  gods  than  theirs.  These  priests 
opened  the  gates,  the  king's  son  and  coregent  Belshazzar 
was  slain  while  feasting,  and  the  king  himself  was  captured 
and  deported.    Thus  Babylonia,  and  with  it  southern  Meso- 

£■>.-. 

Fig.  125— DREAM   TABLET 

Found  at  Erech.  It  contains  the  interpretation  of  two  dreams  by  a  seer. 
They  are  dated,  548  b.c.  Translation:  "In  the  month  Tebet,  day  15th, 
year  7th  of  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylon,  Shum-ukin  says  as  follows: 
"  The  great  star  Dilbet,  Kaksidi,  the  moon,  and  the  sun  I  saw  in  my  dream. 
It  means  favor  for  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylon,  my  lord,  and  favor  for 
Belshazzar  the  son  of  the  king  my  lord.  May  my  ear  attend  to  them." 
The  second  dream  is  similar.  Compare  the  dreams  in  Daniel  (44-17) 
and  the  inability  of  the  astrologers  sometimes  to  interpret  them  (Dan. 
418.  57-9). 

potamia,  Syria,  and  Palestine — all  southwestern  Asia — passed 
from  the  rule  of  the  Semitic  race  to  the  rule  of  the  Aryan.  It 
was  destined  to  remain  in  Aryan  hands  for  a  thousand  years 
until  the  Arabs  came  in  the  seventh  century  of  our  era. 

169.  The  Policy  of  Cyrus.  Cyrus  must  be  ranked  with 
the  greatest  men  of  history  not  only  because  of  high  personal 
character,  but  because  of  extraordinary  powers  of  heart  and 
intellect  and  will.  Magnanimous,  tolerant,  wise,  daring,  he 
swayed  men  and  nations  with  equal  ease.  He  had  a  genius 
for  evoking  loyalty.  He  made  allies  of  all  his  conquered 
foes  and  treated  all  religions  with  respect  because  he  saw  in 
them  feeble  or  perverted  attempts  to  worship  the  one  true 
God,  who  for  him  was  the  Persian  god  Ahura  Mazda.     He 


THE  POLICY  OF  CYRUS 


269 


thus  favored  the  god 
Marduk  of  Babylon  and 
rebuilt  his  shrine,  and 
he  honored  Jehovah 
the  God  of  the  He- 
brews when  occasion 
offered.  This  policy 
was  naturally  very 
pleasing  to  the  host  of 
different  races  and  re- 
ligions within  his  em- 
pire. It  was  part  of 
his  broad  conception 
that  an  empire  should 
be  founded  upon  good- 
will. He  believed  in 
making  peoples  happy. 
Where  the  Assyrian 
Sargon  was  wont  to 
conquer,  deport  to  dis- 
tant provinces,  and  de- 
stroy the  identity  of 
nations,  as  he  did  in  Is- 
rael's case;  and  where 
the  policy  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Nebuchadrezzar 
was  to  deport  but  pre- 
serve peoples,  as  he  did 
in  Judah's  case;  the  Persian  Cyrus  sought  to  restore  all  con- 
quered and  deported  peoples  to  their  native  lands  and  there 
develop  their  local  customs  and  religions,  so  that  they  might 
bless  the  hand  that  prospered  them.  The  royal  governors 
of  Cyrus  proved,  as  a  rule,  not  oppressors  but  benefactors. 

170.  The  Remnant  of  Judah.  As  in  the  case  of  other  de- 
ported peoples,  the  Jews  were  given  prompt  permission  to 
return  to  Palestine  and  rebuild  their  sanctuary  and  city. 


From  Breasted' s  "Ancient  Times." 

Fig.    126— PERSIAN    SOLDIERS 

Palace  guards,  as  shown  by  their  fantastic 
dress.  What  are  they  carrying  on  their 
backs?  What  are  their  weapons? 
The  figures  are  made  of  brightly  colored 
glazed  brick,  a  method  of  decoration 
much  used  by  the  Assyrians  and  Baby- 
lonians and  Persians  (c/.  Figs.  121  and 
122). 


270  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

The  edict  was  issued  in  538  B.C.  Not  all  availed  themselves 
of  it.  In  fact,  the  good  news  fell  for  the  most  part  upon  list- 
less ears.  A  new  generation  had  grown  up  that  knew  not 
Jerusalem,  a  generation  born  to  the  soil  of  Babylon  and  at- 
tached to  it  by  many  ties.  Life  had  become  prosperous  and 
easy  for  many  of  them.  They  had  acquired  lands,  they  had 
trafficked  along  great  rivers  and  across  rich  mountains. 
Babylonian  wives  were  already  rearing  mixed  children  to 
Jewish  fathers  and  Babylonian  gods.  The  splendor  of 
Marduk's  temple  ritual  had  led  some  away  to  his  shrine  and 
Jehovah  had  become  only  a  name.  So  in  spite  of  prophet 
and  priest,  in  spite  of  Sabbaths  and  feasts  and  prayers,  of 
warnings  and  pleadings,  Judah  had  mostly  gone  over  to 
strange  gods  or  no  god.  It  was  an  inevitable  situation.  In- 
deed, it  was  paralleled  in  our  day  before  the  Great  War,  when 
the  appeal  of  the  Zionists  that  the  Jews  should  return  to 
Palestine  found  a  feeble  response;  for  what  prosperous  Jew 
would  exchange  the  opportunities  for  wealth  and  power  and 
culture  afforded  by  London  and  New  York  for  the  primitive 
and  almost  prohibitive  conditions  of  modern  Jerusalem  ? 

No  wonder  the  prophets  spoke  of  those  pious  ones  who 
still  cherished  their  old  patriotism  as  the  faithful  remnant. 
They  were  indeed  but  a  fragment;  yet  it  was  the  seed  of  a 
precious  harvest  for  mankind.  Renan  says:  "We  may  say 
that  in  the  history  of  Judaism  this  is  the  critical  hour,  the 
hour  which  determined  life  or  death.  If  the  return  had  not 
taken  place,  Judah  would  have  shared  the  fate  of  Israel;  it 
would  have  blended  with  the  East.  The  Hebrew  scriptures 
would  have  been  lost.  Christianity  would  not  have  existed. 
The  small  troupe  which  crossed  the  desert  therefore  carried 
the  future  with  it,  and  definitely  founded  the  religion  of  hu- 
manity." 

171.  The  First  Return.  In  537  b.c.  the  first  little  band 
started  on  the  eight-hundred-mile  journey  from  the  river 
Chebar  to  Jerusalem;  they  were  but  a  handful.  There  was 
Joshua  the  priest,  descendant  of  Zadok  the  high  priest  under 


THE  FIRST  RETURN 


271 


David,  and  Zerubba- 
bel,  prince  of  the  royal 
house  of  David.  With 
them  went  their  fam- 
ilies, servants,  friends, 
together  with  a  few 
loyal  Jews  and  many 
Levites.  There  could 
not  have  been  more 
than  a  few  hundred. 
After  this  first  return 
there  were  doubtless 
many  others  straggling 
along  the  years;  and 
yet  we  feel  certain  that 
the  figure  of  42,000 
given  in  the  book  of 
Ezra  applies  to  all  the 
members  of  the  Per- 
sian colony  a  century 
later,  of  whom  the 
peasant  population 
that  had  never  been 
deported  formed  the 
largest  part. 

Fig.  127— CYLINDER  OF 
CYRUS 

It  records  the  capture  of 
Babylon  by  Cyrus  539  b.c. 
"Without  battle  and  with- 
out fighting  Marduk  [god 
of  Babylon]  made  him  (Cy- 
rus) enter  into  his  city  of 
Babylon;  .  .  .  and  Nabo- 
nidus  the  king  who  feared 
him  [the  god]  not,  he  de- 
livered into  his  hand." 
The  priests  of  Marduk 
were  disloyal  to  Naboni- 
dus  and  treacherously 
opened  the  city  gates  to 
Cyrus. 


272  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Cyrus  is  said  to  have  aided  the  band  with  grants  of  money, 
to  have  ordered  his  governors  across  the  river  Euphrates  to 
help,  and  to  have  sent  back  the  sacred  vessels  that  Nebuchad- 
rezzar had  taken  from  the  house  of  Jehovah.  But  the  ex- 
pense of  maintaining  the  colony  in  the  ruined  city  and  the 
neglected  land  until  they  could  become  self-supporting  fell 
upon  the  wealthy  Jews  who  stayed  behind  in  Babylonia. 
They  no  doubt  felt  that  this  was  the  best  way  of  showing 
their  loyalty  to  a  good  cause — to  stay  where  they  could  make 
money  and  contribute  to  the  well-being  of  their  enthusiastic 
but  visionary  fellow  religionists.  History  is  repeating  itself 
in  precisely  this  feature  to-day:  Palestine  has  long  been 
financed  by  Europe  and  America,  and  must  be  for  a  long 
time  to  come. 

172.  Jehovah-Worship  Re-established.  We  can  imagine 
the  mingled  joy  and  grief  with  which  the  exiles  greeted  their 
holy  city.  There  were  some  in  the  band  who  as  children  had 
played  about  its  streets;  and  now  with  tottering  steps  they 
led  the  others  through  the  ruined  gates,  over  the  heaps  of 
former  walls  and  houses  until  they  stood  within  the  sacred 
precinct  on  Mount  Moriah  and  found  the  great  rock  of 
sacrifice.  This  was  the  focal  point,  of  all  their  thinking 
and  the  true  goal  of  their  pilgrimage.  Here  they  scraped 
aside  the  debris  of  fifty  years,  rolled  together  a  few  stones 
for  an  altar,  and  once  more  offered  an  oblation  to  Jehovah 
on  the  spot  where  he  had  "set  his  name."  Now  at  last  they 
had  re-established  connection  between  earth  and  heaven. 
Once  more  were  they  Jehovah's  people,  and  Jehovah  would 
now  fulfil  all  the  visions  seen  by  his  prophets  of  a  new 
Jerusalem,  the  joy  of  the  whole  earth,  and  of  scattered  peo- 
ples nocking  to  it. 

"  It  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  latter  days  that  the  mountain 
of  Jehovah's  house  shall  be  established  on  the  top  of  the 
mountains,  and  it  shall  be  exalted  above  the  hills;  and  peo- 
ples shall  flow  unto  it.  And  many  nations  shall  go  and  say, 
'  Come  and  let  us  go  up  to  the  mountain  of  Jehovah,  and  to 


JEHOVAH-WORSHIP  RE-ESTABLISHED        273 

the  house  of  the  God  of  Jacob;  and  he  will  teach  us  of  his 
ways,  and  we  will  walk  in  his  paths.  From  out  of  Zion 
shall  go  forth  the  law,  and  the  word  of  Jehovah  from 
Jerusalem;  and  he  will  judge  between  many  peoples  and  will 
decide  concerning  strong  nations  afar  off:  and  they  shall 
beat  their  swords  into  ploughshares  and  their  spears  into 
pruning-hooks;  nation  shall  not  lift  up  sword  against  nation, 
neither  shall  they  learn  wrar  any  more.  But  they  shall  sit 
every  man  under  his  vine  and  under  his  fig-tree;  and  none 
shall  make  them  afraid;  for  the  mouth  of  Jehovah  of  hosts 
has  spoken  it.'  " — Micah  41"4. 

Not  yet,  however,  had  the  fulness  of  the  time  come.  De- 
lays and  disappointments  were  still  in  store. 

173.  The  Struggle  for  a  Temple.  The  returned  exiles 
first  laid  the  foundations  of  their  new  temple  (536  B.C.).  In 
this  project  the  people  of  the  land  wished  to  share,  for  they 
were  partly  at  least  Jews  in  blood  and  in  tradition.  But  the 
returned  exiles  refused  their  offer.  It  may  be  that  the  racially 
pure  Jews  from  Babylonia  did  not  like  to  associate  with 
those  of  mixed  race  and  mixed  religion — the  descendants  of 
the  confused  peoples  whom  Sargon  and  Nebuchadrezzar  had 
left  in  Palestine;  or  it  may  be  that  they  feared  to  forfeit 
their  independence  and  their  charter  by  admitting  out- 
siders. At  any  rate,  the  refusal  was  unfortunate,  for  it  made 
eternal  enemies  of  the  older  inhabitants.  The  immediate 
result  was  that  the  latter  blocked  all  transport  of  timber 
from  Lebanon,  and  the  building  of  the  temple  had  therefore 
to  cease.  For  sixteen  years  nothing  was  done,  while  the 
hatred  grew. 

174.  Zerubbabel's  Hopes.  In  the  meantime  things  hap- 
pened in  the  outer  world.  Cyrus  died  in  529  B.C.  His  son 
Cambyses  had  a  short  reign,  following  which  came  chaos. 
The  empire  seemed  to  be  going  to  pieces.  Even  after  Darius 
had  been  proclaimed  king  there  arose  nine  pretenders  in 
different  parts  of  the  empire  who  desperately  disputed  the 
throne  with  the  newcomer,  so  that  not  until  519  did  Darius 


274  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

finally  master  the  situation.  This  period  of  chaos  set  the 
hearts  of  the  Palestinian  community  to  fluttering.  Might 
it  not  be  that  Jehovah  would  now  liberate  the  Jews  com- 
pletely and  restore  to  them  the  throne  of  their  father  David  ? 

Two  prophets,  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  arose  to  fan  the 
hope  into  a  blaze.  They  proclaimed  that  if  only  Jehovah's 
people  would  perform  their  vows  and  build  his  temple,  he 
would  do  his  part  and  establish  his  kingdom.  Zerubbabel, 
their  governor,  was  at  hand,  a  noble  prince  of  the  Davidic 
line.  He  should  be  crowned.  With  feverish  expectancy  the 
people  leaped  to  the  task  of  completing  their  temple  struc- 
ture. Perhaps  because  the  secret  hope  they  were  nursing 
leaked  out,  the  Persian  governor  of  Syria  to  whom  Zerub- 
babel was  subordinate  attempted  to  stop  the  work.  But 
the  Jews  claimed  that  they  had  authority  in  their  original 
decree  from  Cyrus.  The  governor  wrote  Darius  for  instruc- 
tions. Darius  looked  in  the  state  records,  found  the  decree, 
and  gave  orders  that  the  temple-building  should  not  be 
hindered.  Accordingly  the  Jews  pushed  on  the  work  and 
completed  the  structure  in  516  B.C.  But  in  the  meantime 
Zerubbabel  disappeared  from  sight.  Whether  his  ambition 
became  known  to  Darius  and  he  was  put  out  of  the  way,  or 
whether  he  was  removed  because  of  a  general  change  of 
policy,  the  fact  remains  that  henceforth  Palestine  was  ruled 
by  a  Persian  satrap,  as  indeed  all  the  provinces  of  the  great 
empire  of  Darius  were.  The  Messianic  hope  of  the  Jews  was 
dashed  to  pieces  and  did  not  reappear  until  the  days  of  the 
successful  Maccabean  revolt  nearly  four  centuries  later. 

175.  What  the  Temple  Meant.  Although  in  Josiah's 
reign  (Sec.  143)  the  new  law-book  had  declared  that  Jehovah 
should  be  worshipped  henceforth  only  at  Jerusalem,  yet 
when  his  temple  had  been  destroyed  and  his  people  scat- 
tered, the  exiles  in  various  lands  felt  at  liberty  to  build  other 
shrines.  We  know  for  certain  of  a  Jehovah  temple  in  Egypt 
(Sec.  160).  The  temple  at  Jerusalem  therefore  must  have 
served  primarily  as  a  place  of  worship  for  the  people  of  that 


WHAT  THE  TEMPLE  MEANT  275 

city  and  community.  But  there  was  a  sentimental  connec- 
tion still  between  all  Jews,  wherever  exiled,  and  their  national 
home;  and  so  the  new  temple  became  a  rallying-point  for 
Jewish  patriotism  and  religion.  To  the  old-new  shrine  gifts 
were  sent  across  great  deserts  and  sundering  seas.  To  it 
pilgrims  were  attracted  in  greater  and  greater  numbers 
through  the  years  as  the  worship  and  ritual  were  developed, 
their  caravans  drawing  thither  to  the  great  feasts  from  the 
four  corners  of  the  world.  And  here  at  length  grew  up  that 
hierarchy  of  priests,  sustained  by  a  body  of  sacred  law,  that 
constituted  the  very  life  of  Judaism.  By  the  new  temple  the 
gulf  of  the  exile  and  the  dispersion  was  bridged:  over  it 
passed  the  tradition  from  the  destroyed  state  to  the  coming 
church. 

176.  The  Psalms  of  the  Second  Temple.  The  joy  of  hav- 
ing comoleted  the  temple  gave  rise  to  an  outburst  of  song. 
Many  of  these  poems  have  been  preserved  in  our  book  of 
Psalms.  They  all  speak  of  the  nation's  sense  of  gratitude 
for  sin  forgiven,  their  pleasure  in  the  shrine  upon  the  holy 
hill,  their  love  for  Jehovah  who  thus  has  prospered  them,  and 
their  trust  for  the  future.  The  opening  lines  of  a  few  of 
them  give  a  correct  hint  of  their  spirit: 

"Jehovah,  thou  hast  been  favorable  to  thy  land, 
Thou  hast  brought  back  the  captivity  of  Jacob." 

—Psalm  85. 

"  His  foundation  is  in  the  holy  mountains. 
Jehovah  loveth  the  gates  of  Zion 
More  than  all  the  dwellings  of  Jacob." — Psalm  87. 

"O  sing  to  Jehovah  a  new  song, 
For  he  has  done  marvellous  things." — Psalm  98. 

"  How  amiable  are  thy  tabernacles, 
O  Jehovah  of  hosts! 


276  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

My  soul  longs,  yea,  even  faints  for  the  courts  of 
Jehovah." — Psalm  84. 

This  period  of  enthusiasm  was  as  brief  as  it  was  joyous. 
When  next  the  voice  of  the  psalmist  breaks  upon  the  ear, 
the  garment  of  praise  has  given  place  to  the  spirit  of  heavi- 
ness, the  song  has  become  a  wail. 


XXV 

THE    SUFFERINGS    OF    THE    FAITHFUL 

177.  Palestine  again  Oppressed.  Of  the  course  of  Persian 
history,  of  which  Jewish  history  is  now  a  part,  we  have  a 
fairly  full  knowledge.  Darius  reigned  from  521  to  485  B.C. 
This  is  that  Darius  whose  satraps  in  Asia  Minor  could  not 
prevent  the  Asiatic  Greeks  and  the  Athenians  from  burning 
Sardis,  and  who  ordered  his  cupbearer  to  say  to  him  three 
times  a  day:  "Sire,  remember  the  Athenians."  This  is  he 
who  invaded  Greece  and  met.  defeat  at  Marathon  in  490  B.C. 
After  him  ruled  Xerxes,  whose  vast  armaments  raised  for 
the  destruction  of  Greece  were  shattered  at  Thermopylae, 
and  Salamis  and  Platsea.  Then  came  Artaxerxes,  who  kept 
up  a  losing  fight  with  the  Ionians  and  Greeks  and  whose 
title  to  fame  in  Jewish  history  rests  on  his  kindness  to  Ne- 
hemiah  his  cupbearer.  Palestine  in  the  days  of  all  these 
kings  was  a  Persian  province  governed  by  a  satrap  whose 
centre  of  power  was  somewhere  in  the  north  and  who  left 
local  control  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  high  priest  at 
Jerusalem. 

Though  the  period  of  Jewish  history  that  follows  the  re- 
building of  the  temple  is  very  obscure,  we  know  in  a  general 
way  what  the  condition  of  the  colony  was.  The  lot  of  the 
Jews  was  hard.  No  merciful  Cyrus  watched  over  their  in- 
terests, but  satraps  oppressed  and  hostile  neighbors  raided 
them.  The  second  Isaiah  well  describes  the  plight  of  the 
faithful : 

"  It  is  a  people  spoiled  and  plundered, 

They  are  all  snared  in  holes, 

And  hidden  in  prison  houses. 
277 


278  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

They  have  become  a  spoil 

With  none  to  rescue, 

An  object  of  plunder 

With  none  to  say,  '  Restore,"  " — Isaiah  4222. 

This  period  of  wretchedness  must  have  seemed  to  the  pious 
Jews  to  be  hopeless.     Not  only  was  there  oppression  from 


Fig.    128— "  SHUSHAN    THE    PALACE" 

A  restoration  of  the  throne-hall  in  the  palace  of  Xerxes  (485-465  b.c.)  at  Susa. 
It  covered  an  area  of  two  and  a  half  acres  and  consisted  of  a  pillared  throne- 
room  in  which  were  36  fluted  columns  67  feet  high.  The  ceiling  was  of 
cedar  of  Lebanon.  Externally  the  building  was  adorned  with  columns  as 
shown  above,  the  capitals  of  which  consisted  of  the  heads  and  shoulders 
of  oxen,  back  to  back.  The  cornice,  as  well  as  the  various  friezes  of  the 
interior  were  of  enamelled  brick  of  bright  colors,  forming  rosettes,  war- 
riors, lions  and  geometric  patterns.  This  is  one  of  the  many  buildings 
that  constituted  the  palace  of  Queen  Esther. 


without,  but  corruption  within.  The  old  enthusiasm  with 
which  the  remnant  had  returned  from  exile  had  waned;  the 
old  devotion  to  the  re-established  temple  had  died  down. 
Sordid  human  nature  had  reasserted  itself  in  priest  and  ruler, 
and  the  old  evils  of  class  hatred  and  social  injustice  were 
again  intrenching  themselves.  The  humble  man  who  did 
right  and  kept  the  faith  was  condemned  to  poverty  and  per- 
secution and  then  confronted  by  the  vicious  theory  that  his 
sufferings  were  Jehovah's  punishment  for  his  sins.  The  day 
was  indeed  dark  and  the  night  starless. 


NEHEMIAH  TO  THE   RESCUE  279 

178.  Nehemiah  to  the  Rescue.  The  story  of  Nehemiah 
breaks  in  upon  the  despondency  of  the  times  like  a  sunrise. 
This  great  patriot,  born  of  course  in  exile,  was  cupbearer  to 
the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes  I  at  Susa.  To  him  there  came  a 
deputation  from  the  inhabitants  of  Judea,  bringing  news  of 
the  defenseless  plight  of  the  holy  city  and  the  urgent  need  of 
help.  The  story  of  the  sufferings  of  his  fellow  countrymen 
made  Nehemiah  so  sad  that  when  he  next  stood  before  the 
king  his  face  showed  traces  of  weeping.  When  the  king 
learned  the  cause  of  his  sorrow  he  was  gracious  enough  to 
grant  Nehemiah  leave  of  absence,  with  passports  to  the  gov- 
ernors beyond  the  river  Euphrates  and  authority  to  make 
levies  of  wood  in  the  king's  forest  and  to  rebuild  the  walls  of 
the  city.  A  military  escort  was  also  furnished.  Arriving  in 
Jerusalem  in  445  B.C.  Nehemiah  found  conditions  that  well 
might  have  discouraged  him.  The  high-priestly  rulers  were 
suspicious  and  hostile  because  his  authority  superseded 
theirs.  They  and  the  wealthy  class  had  been  having  things 
their  own  way  with  the  people  regardless  of  the  claims  of 
justice,  and  they  feared  to  have  light  let  in.  There  were  also 
hostile  neighbors  who  were  little  enough  inclined  to  see  Jeru- 
salem become  a  strong  and  controlling  city:  Samaritans  on 
the  north  first  of  all,  then  Ammonites  on  the  east,  Arabians 
on  the  south,  and  Philistines  on  the  west.  Couple  this  sus- 
picion and  hostility  with  the  general  poverty  and  lack  of 
leadership  in  Judea  itself,  and  the  size  of  Nehemiah's  task 
becomes  apparent. 

179.  His  Efficiency  and  Bravery.  Nevertheless  he  went 
to  work.  He  made  a  tour  of  the  ruined  city  by  night  and 
then  reported  to  those  in  authority  that  he  would  begin  re- 
building without  delay.  For  this  undertaking  he  divided 
the  wall  into  sections  and  placed  each  section  in  charge  of  a 
definite  person — a  priest  or  householder  or  head  of  family, 
so  that  responsibility  and  friendly  rivalry  might  hasten  the 
work.  But  when  Sanballat,  who  ruled  Palestine  from  Sa- 
maria as  a  sub-satrap,   heard  of  this  renewed   attempt  to 


280  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

strengthen  Jerusalem  he  violently  opposed  it.  He  let  loose 
upon  the  builders  certain  guerilla  warriors  from  Samaria 
and  the  bordering  regions  who  harried  the  workmen  without 
mercy.  Then  Nehemiah  organized  the  citizens  of  Jerusalem 
for  defense,  stationed  some  of  them  with  arms  at  strategic 
places,  gave  weapons  to  the  builders  themselves  so  that  they 
could  turn  from  trowel  to  sword  without  loss  of  time.  A 
trumpeter  was  stationed  on  the  walls  to  give  signal  of  the 
point  of  special  attack.  Nehemiah  himself  was  everywhere 
all  the  time;  he  even  slept  in  his  clothes.  In  this  way  the 
work  proceeded  with  feverish  haste  until  in  fifty-two  days 
the  whole  encircling  wall  was  completed.  Sanballat  was 
chagrined  to  find  himself  outclassed.  He  tried  four  times  to 
entice  Nehemiah  out  of  the  city  on  the  pretense  of  a  con- 
ference, planning  to  have  him  assassinated,  but  Nehemiah 
was  too  wary.  He  tried  to  scare  him  by  threatening  to  ac- 
cuse him  of  treason  before  Artaxerxes.  But  all  to  no  purpose. 
Nehemiah  then  organized  the  city  for  permanent  defense 
and  administration  under  his  brother  as  governor.  A  census 
was  taken  as  a  means  of  determining  who  were  of  strict 
Jewish  descent,  and  many  Jews  who  had  settled  in  neighbor- 
ing towns  were  transferred  to  Jerusalem  to  help  fill  in  the 
vacant  places  behind  the  new  walls.  In  these  ways  the  city 
was  again  put  in  habitable  form  after  a  hundred  and  fifty 
years  of  desolation,  and  the  external  part  of  Nehemiah's 
commission  was  accomplished. 

180.  Nehemiah's  Reforms.  But  Nehemiah  found  it 
necessary  to  strengthen  the  struggling  colony  in  other  ways. 
During  the  building  process  the  hard  lot  of  the  poor  became 
wofully  apparent.  Having  left  their  farms  and  other  prof- 
itable work  to  build  the  city's  walls  as  a  labor  of  love,  they 
found  themselves  out  of  bread.  Some  had  mortgaged  their 
lands  to  wealthy  men  only  to  have  their  creditors  foreclose 
and  take  their  lands  away.  Others  had  to  sell  their  children 
into  slavery  to  raise  money  to  live.  Nehemiah  called  the 
capitalists  together,  appealed  to  their  common  blood   and 


NEHEMIAH'S  REFORMS 


281 


i  Ancient  Jerusalem. 


Fig.  129 — THE    JERUSALEM    OP    NEHEMIAH 


282  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

the  great  cause  for  which  they  were  all  sacrificing,  and 
showed  how  he  himself  was  refusing  salary  as  governor  in 
order  to  keep  down  taxation  and  was  himself  feeding  many 
people  from  his  private  purse.  Thus  he  won  them  over  to 
better  practices.  This  moral  victory  is  testimony  to  the 
great  personal  influence  of  Nehemiah. 

Not  stopping  with  this  moral  reform,  he  went  on  to  relig- 
ious matters.  He  appointed  a  committee  to  restore  the  tem- 
ple finances  to  a  sound  basis.  Having  found  the  observance 
of  the  Sabbath  much  less  strict  than  the  law  required,  he 
issued  an  edict  forbidding  trade  within  the  city  on  the  holy 
day.  The  gates  were  closed  at  sundown  on  Friday;  the 
dealers  in  fish  and  provisions  from  Tyre  and  other  parts  were 
thrust  out  by  force.  Next,  he  undertook  to  abate  the  evil  of 
mixed  marriages.  The  book  of  Deuteronomy  had  rigidly 
commanded  that  Hebrews  should  not  intermarry  with  for- 
eigners; but  in  the  troublous  times  of  the  exile  and  after, 
with  no  one  to  enforce  this  regulation,  the  Jews  had  become 
lax.  Nehemiah  saw  that  the  unity  of  the  state  and  the  purity 
of  religion  required  that  this  law  be  revived.  Revived  it 
was,  in  part  at  least,  though  the  full  enforcement  waited  for 
the  coming  of  more  zealous  reformers  and  the  growth  of  a 
more  exclusive  spirit. 

181.  The  Ezra  Tradition.  The  narratives  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  if  taken  at  their  face  value,  would  require  us  to 
insert  here  the  account  of  a  much  more  drastic  reform  than 
that  of  Nehemiah  under  the  leadership  of  a  priest  and  scribe 
named  Ezra.  Modern  scholars,  however,  see  in  these  narra- 
tives the  endeavor  of  later  generations  to  give  definite  au- 
thority for  laws  and  customs  that  had  grown  up  since  Ne- 
hemiah's  day.  Ezra  is  a  personification  of  the  legal  spirit 
that  now  began  to  dominate  the  Jewish  mind.  That  there 
was  a  historic  Ezra  may  be  true,  but  that  ne  alone  wrought 
the  reforms  ascribed  to  him  is  more  than  doubtful.  Rather 
it  would  seem  that  the  writer  of  these  accounts — perhaps  he 
who  wrote  also  the  books  of  Chronicles — projected  the  ideas 


THE  EZRA  TRADITION 


283 


and  institutions  of  his  own  day  (c.  250  B.C.)  back  into  the 
earlier  period.  The  laws  ascribed  to  Ezra  should  therefore 
be  ascribed  to  many  reformers  scattered  over  two  centuries 
of  time  and  finally  collected  and  attached  to  Ezra's  name. 
These  laws  all  have  to 
do  with  religion:  keeping 
marriages  free  from  out- 
side mixture;  regulating 
offerings,  worship,  Sab- 
baths and  feasts.  They 
mark  the  growth  of  that 
spirit  that  Jesus  so  con- 
demned in  his  day,  by 
which  men  tithed  mint, 
anise  and  cummin,  but 
left  undone  the  weightier 
matters  of  justice  and 
mercy.  From  this  time 
on,  the  Jewish  religion 
becomes  less  and  less  a 
matter  of  the  heart  and 

deed  and  more  a  series  of  rules  about  the  details  of  worship. 
182.  The  Religious  Interpreters  of  Judah's  Suffering. 
Out  of  the  crushed  and  trampled  life  of  this  period  has 
arisen  the  sweet  odor  of  the  most  wonderful  religious  litera- 
ture the  world  has  known.  Never  did  men  look  within  more 
earnestly  to  find  in  their  own  sin  the  cause  of  suffering,  nor 
look  above  so  hopefully  to  find  in  God  their  salvation.  A 
host  of  singers  arose,  all  of  them  unknown  by  name,  who  left 
in  our  book  of  Psalms  the  record  of  their  spiritual  experi- 
ences. To  read  the  Psalms  with  their  historic  backgrounds 
in  mind  is  to  get  a  new  conception  of  their  meaning  and 
beauty.     In  some  the  note  of  desDair  is  heard: 

"My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me?" — 
Psalm  22.  <l{-l<\-f<) 


Fi&.    130— CYLINDER    SEAL   OF 
DARIUS 
(British  Museum) 
Represents  a  lion  hunt.     The  horses  are 
leaping    over    a  dead   lioness,   while 
the   king   discharges   arrows   at   her 
ramping  mate.     Above,  the  symbol 
of  the  god  Ahura  Mazda  protecting 
Darius.     Inscription  in  Persian.  Me- 
dian, and  Babylonian:   "I  am  Darius 
the  great  king." 


'^(JU—     3°  -*«f  -  to  -  13 


284  THE  HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH 

"O   God,  thou   hast  cast  us  off,  thou  hast  broken  us 
down." — Psalm  60. 

"  Out  of  the  depths  have  I  cried  unto  thee,  O  Jehovah." 
—Psalm  130. 

Now  a  hope  arises  that  God  will  hear  and  save: 

"Have  mercy  upon  me,  O  God,  according  to  thy  loving- 
kindness." — Psalm  51. 

"In  thee,  O  Jehovah,  do  I  take  refuge." — Psalm  71. 

"  In  my  distress  I  cried  unto  Jehovah, 
And  he  answered  me." — Psalm  120. 

With  deliverance  comes  the  note  of  praise,  and  delight  in 
the  worship  on  Mount  Zion: 

"Jehovah  is  my  light  and  my  salvation; 
Whom  shall  I  fear?"— Psalm  27. 

"O  give  thanks  unto  Jehovah,  for  he  is  good, 
For  his  lovingkindness  endures  forever." — Psalm  107. 

"I  love  Jehovah  because  he  hath  heard 
My  voice  and  my  supplications." — Psalm  116. 

The  voice  of  prophecy  is  now  raised  almost  for  the  last 
time  in  Hebrew  history.  Malachi,  pondering  on  the  sins  of 
priest  and  people  alike,  proclaimed  the  need  for  a  great  moral 
awakening  and  for  a  new  priesthood  who  should  teach  the 
way  of  righteousness.  The  author  of  Job,  as  he  thought  on 
the  mystery  of  suffering,  taught  men  to  reject  the  old  theory 
that  God  always  punishes  sinners  and  prospers  the  right- 
eous; for  the  righteous  are  more  often  to  be  found  suffering, 


JUDAH'S  SUFFERING  285 

while  the  wicked  prosper.  Instead  he  taught  that  all  of 
life,  suffering  included,  is  a  mystery,  and  the  righteous  must 
trust  God's  wisdom  where  they  cannot  understand  his  ways: 
"Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  him." 

183.  The  Second  Isaiah.  But  the  greatest  voice  of  the 
age  and  one  of  the  great  voices  of  all  ages  was  the  second 
Isaiah,  who  rose  on  the  wings  of  prophetic  rhapsody  as  he 
saw  in  downtrodden  yet  purified  Israel  the  "Suffering  Ser- 
vant of  Jehovah."  Well  might  a  nation  accept  so  hard  a  fate 
if  out  of  it  could  come  an  insight  like  his — an  insight  into 
God's  wondrous  character,  his  sovereignty  over  all  the  world, 
his  righteousness  contrasted  with  Israel's  sin,  his  forgiveness 
over  against  Israel's  faithlessness,  his  redeeming  love  for 
Israel  his  servant,  and  through  that  suffering  servant  his 
promised  redemption  for  all  mankind.  It  was  this  unknown 
prophet — called  the  second  Isaiah  because  his  prophecies  are 
bound  up  with  those  of  the  Isaiah  of  Hezekiah's  day  in  our 
book  of  Isaiah  (chaps.  40-55) — who  put  stars  into  the  sky 
of  Judah's  night  and  directed  men's  faith  toward  distant 
horizons  of  hope  and  the  sunrise  clouds  beyond.  The  visions 
of  the  prophet  were  destined  not  to  be  fulfilled  in  the  sense 
in  which  he  perhaps  understood  them,  but  they  voice  the 
eternal  hope  of  man  for  better  things,  and  they  illuminate 
with  brilliant  significance  the  career  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  who 
showed  men  and  is  still  showing  them  how  through  suffering 
they  may  help  God  establish,  not  a  kingdom  of  David,  but  a 
democracy  of  redeemed  humanity. 


XXVI 

THE    CHURCH   ABSORBS   THE    STATE 

184.  The  Last  Century  of  Persian  Rule.  The  Jewish  peo- 
ple were  perhaps  never  happier  than  during  the  century 
that  followed  the  reforms  of  Nehemiah.  Behind  the  new 
walls  Jerusalem  found  courage,  peace  and  security.  The 
meagre  resources  of  Judea  were  developed.  Under  favoring 
edicts  from  the  Great  King  the  borders  of  Jewry  were  ex- 
tended northward  and  into  the  plain  of  Sharon.  Still  the 
colony  never  became  large;  and  because  of  its  racial  exclu- 
siveness  and  its  aloofness  from  the  outside  world  and  from 
the  great  lines  of  trade  it  remained  an  almost  unknown  factor 
in  the  great  empire.  Herodotus,  who  tells  us  much  about 
the  East  in  this  period,  apparently  never  heard  of  the  Jews. 

Persia  allowed  Judea  a  large  measure  of  self-government; 
in  fact,  about  the  only  requirements  laid  on  her  were  that 
she  should  pay  a  definite  tax,  furnish  a  levy  of  youths  for 
the  royal  standing  army,  and  keep  the  peace.  The  local 
governor  at  Jerusalem  was  responsible  to  the  satrap  at 
Damascus,  and  he  together  with  nineteen  other  satraps  who 
administered  the  Persian  empire  reported  to  the  Great 
King  at  one  of  his  four  capitals,  Babylon,  Susa,  Persepolis, 
or  Ecbatana.  Since  the  disappearance  of  Zerubbabel  (Sec. 
174)  the  governor  of  Judea  had  been  the  high  priest.  His 
office  therefore  became  one  of  increasing  dignity,  especially 
after  it  became  hereditar}".  The  high  priest  was  virtually 
the  head  of  the  Jewish  state  from  now  until  that  state  dis- 
appears from  history. 

185.  Organization  and  Income  of  the  Priests.  Below  the 
high  priest  stood  an  aristocratic  ruling  class  made  up  of 
(a)  descendants  of  the  old  families  of  wealth  and  royal  blood 

286 


ORGANIZATION  OF   THE   PRIESTS 


287 


Fig       131 


—ASSYRIAN 
CIMERS 


DUL- 


in  the  pre-exilic  period,  (b)  priestly  families,  some  of  them 
tracing  their  line  from  David's  or  even  Aaron's  day.  Gradu- 
ally the  priestly  families  gathered  to  themselves  the  offices 
and  positions  of  social  influence,  and  so  took  the  place  of  the 
lay  aristocrats.  The  whole  gov- 
ernment became  priestly.  It  is 
easy  to  understand  how  this 
transformation  came  about  when 
one  considers  the  wealth  that 
came  to  priests.  The  law  spec- 
ified that  all  the  best  of  a  man's 
produce  of  every  kind  should  go 
to  them,  amounting  according 
to  Jewish  tradition  to  one-forti- 
eth of  the  whole  (Num.  1812). 
Moreover,  when  this  had  been 
deducted,  one-tenth  of  the  entire 
crop  had  to  be  paid  to  the  Le- 
vites  (lower  priests  and  temple 
officials),  whose  duty  it  was  to 
pass  one-tenth  of  that  tenth  to 
those  higher  up.  When  grain 
was  ground  and  baked,  one  loaf 
in  twenty-five  had  to  go  to  the 
priest.  To  the  priest  went  the 
first-born  of  all  cattle,  or  a 
money  equivalent;  to  him  the 
redemption  money  of  every  first- 
born male  ($3.25,  equivalent  to  perhaps  $30  to-day).  When 
a  Jew  killed  an  animal  for  food,  the  shoulder,  two  cheeks  and 
stomach  went  to  the  priest.  When  he  sheared  a  sheep  he 
had  to  pay  a  tenth  of  the  wool.  A  part  of  every  sacrificial 
animal  and  every  meal-offering,  sin-offering,  and  trespass- 
offering  became  priest-fees.  Other  fines  and  vows  went  by 
the  same  road  into  the  priests'  pockets.  The  punctual  pay- 
ment of  all  these  dues  became  a  matter  of  conscience,  a  pre- 


hollow 
it    the 


The  lower  part  is  the 
sounding-box.  From 
strings  run  to  an  upright  post, 
by  which  device  strings  of 
different  lengths  are  secured 
The  whole  is  attached  to  the 
player  by  a  belt,  and  can  be 
played  while  marching.  The 
Hebrews  used  harps,  of  which 
this  is  one  variety,  on  all 
kinds  of  occasions  (Job  2111-12, 
Amos  65.  I  Sam.  105,  18°) 
Who  is  said  to  have  invented 
the  harp  (Gen.  4  :l)  ? 


288  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

eminent  act  of  righteousness  and  a  guarantee  that  Jehovah 
would  in  turn  bless  the  giver.  No  wonder  that  under  such 
a  system  it  paid  to  be  a  priest,  and  e\-en  to  intrigue  and 
bribe  and  murder  one's  way  into  the  high  priest's  chair  ! 

186.  The  Written  Law.  While  the  priestly  class  tended 
more  and  more  to  control  both  the  civil  and  religious  life  of 
the  Jews,  nevertheless  there  was  a  limit  beyond  which  priests 
could  not  safely  go.  There  was  a  written  law.  We  recall 
that  in  Josiah's  day  (Sec.  141),  the  people  had  adopted  such 
a  law,  the  nucleus  of  our  book  of  Deuteronomy.  This  book 
had  been  enlarged  by  the  priests  of  the  exile,  who  having  no 
longer  any  temple  to  serve  turned  all  of  their  zeal  into  per- 
fecting and  elaborating  the  traditions  of  their  worship. 
Other  additions,  especially  along  the  lines  of  ritual,  followed 
the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  in  516  B.C.,  and  still  others  in 
continuous  procession  down  into  the  Greek  period.  This 
written  law  became  the  standard  for  all  civil  and  religious 
life,  and  since  it  was  binding  alike  on  priest  and  people  it 
became  a  great  bulwark  of  popular  rights.  It  and  the  syna- 
gogue are  the  two  institutions  that  have  kept  Israel  demo- 
cratic all  through  the  ages. 

187.  The  Scribes.  Reverence  for  the  law  was  destined 
to  work  a  fateful  change  in  the  structure  of  Jewish  life. 
Since  the  law  was  supreme  over  priest  and  people,  he  who 
had  perfect  knowledge  of  the  law  and  was  skilled  in  inter- 
preting it  would  gradually  rise  to  a  position  of  power  and 
dignity  in  the  state.  Men  who  were  learned  in  this  way  were 
known  as  scribes.  At  first  they  were  all  priests,  but  later 
laymen  entered  the  ranks.  This  class,  who  began  to  be 
prominent  in  the  Persian  period,  came  at  last  to  have  a 
wider  popular  influence  than  the  hereditary  ruling  class.  In 
Jesus'  day  the  scribe  overshadowed  the  priest. 

188.  The  Jews  Outside  Judea.  It  must  not  be  imagined 
that  the  Palestinian  Jews  made  up  at  this  period  the  bulk  of 
the  Jewish  race.  There  were  still  thousands  of  others  who 
were  destined  never  to  see  Palestine  and  who  in  a  way  had 


JEWS  OUTSIDE  JUDEA  289 

little  part  in  this  intense  religious  life  that  was  developing 
in  Judea.  There  was  the  host  still  in  Babylonia,  transplanted 
by  Nebuchadrezzar  to  new  fields  and  now  actually  rooted 
there.     Caught  by  the  commercial  spirit  of  the  times,  many 


Fig.    132 — TRUMPETS 

Made  from  the  horn  of  the  wild  goat  or  of  the  ram.  The  horns  were  soaked  in 
oil  until  they  became  pliable,  then  were  worked  into  the  desired  shape. 
While  the  Jews  had  beautiful  silver  trumpets,  these  old-fashioned  cere- 
monial ones  were  used  on  special  occasion,  their  sanctity  dating  from  the 
time  of  Moses  (Ex.  1916,  2018).  Note  the  carving  on  the  upper  one. 
Trumpet  blowing  was  an  important  feature  of  Jewish  ritual,  especially  on 
fast-days,  New  Year's,  and  Jubilee  year. 


had  engaged  in  trade  in  the  great  capital  cities  of  the  world, 
in  Susa,  Ecbatana,  Persepolis,  the  towns  of  Mesopotamia 
and  Syria,  and  in  the  seaports  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Egyp- 
tian delta.  In  upper  Egypt  also  the  ancient  Jewish  colonies 
continued  to  flourish.  We  must  not  forget  the  prisoners  of 
war  who  had  been  scattered  by  conquerors  all  over  the  East, 
as  Artaxerxes  Ochus  scattered  them  in  350  B.C.  after  a  re- 
volt, and  the  slaves  kidnapped  by  Phoenician  dealers  and 
sold  in  Mediterranean  ports.  These  individuals  and  groups 
were  like  seeds  driven  by  the  winds  to  strange  soils,  but,  true 
to  type,  reproduced  in  the  course  of  years  communities  of 
Jews  that  had  a  wonderful  influence  on  the  trend  of  events, 
especially  on  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  the  first  century 


290  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

after  Christ.     These  foreign-dwelling  Jews  came  to  be  called 
"The  Dispersion." 

189.  The  Book  of  Esther.  In  our  Bible  is  a  book  written 
after  the  close  of  this  period  which,  though  not  strictly  his- 
torical, reflects  accurately  the  life  of  the  dispersion.  It  is 
the  book  of  Esther.  Here  we  see  large  numbers  of  Jews 
living  in  the  midst  of  foreign  and  often  hostile  races,  subject 
to  the  whims  of  governors  and  royal  favorites,  yet  managing 
to  save  themselves  by  their  wits  and  even  to  retaliate  on 
their  enemies.  It  is  not  on  the  whole  an  edifying  picture, 
but  it  is  redeemed  somewhat  by  the  intense  though  narrow 
patriotism  that  shines  through  it. 

190.  The  Influence  of  the  Dispersion  on  Judaism.  Grow- 
ing out  of  these  contacts  with  the  world  there  now  began  to 
develop  two  opposite  tendencies  in  Jewish  thought.  One 
may  be  called  the  inclusive  tendency,  which  looked  upon  all 
peoples  as  possible  Jehovah-worshippers.  This  view  was 
based  upon  the  ideals  of  the  great  prophet,  the  second 
Isaiah,  with  his  vision  of  a  Messiah's  kingdom  embracing  all 
the  world.  The  other  tendency  is  the  exclusive,  growing  out 
of  the  teachings  of  Nehemiah  and  his  reforming  successors. 
This  view  drew  a  sharp  distinction  between  Jew  and  Gentile, 
the  worshippers  of  Jehovah  and  the  heathen,  and  made  more 
intense  the  feeling  of  separation  and  even  of  hostility  be- 
tween them.  The  numerous  genealogies  found  throughout 
the  Old  Testament  are  silent  witness  to  this  pride  of  race. 
In  some  of  the  biblical  prophets  we  find  traces  of  the  belief 
that  all  the  heathen  will  some  day  meet  with  disaster  at  Je- 
hovah's hand  (Isaiah  24-27,  Joel,  Obadiah,  and  Zech.  9-14). 
But  there  is  one  remarkable  book  that  upholds  the  broader 
view,  the  book  of  Jonah.  It  teaches  that  God  has  a  wider 
sympathy  than  man;  that  when  his  prophet  refuses  to  preach 
to  a  heathen  city  and  even  tries  to  run  away  from  his  duty, 
God  brings  him  back  and  through  him  calls  the  great  Nineveh 
to  repentance.  In  the  lands  of  the  dispersion,  naturally,  the 
wider  conception  of  Jehovah's  sphere  of  influence  and  grace 


INFLUENCE  OF  THE  DISPERSION  291 

prevailed;  but  within  Judea  the  narrower  view  won  accep- 
tance. It  culminated  at  the  end  of  the  Persian  period  in  the 
great  split  known  as  the  Samaritan  schism. 

191.  The  Samaritan  Schism.  There  had  never  been  any 
too  much  love  between  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  who  had 
never    been    deported   and    the   faithful    remnant   that   re- 


Fig.    133— CYMBALS 

(British  Museum) 

They  served  to  mark  the  time  in  dancing  or  singing,  and  were  used  frequently 
with  trumpets  (Ez.  31",  I  Chron.  1519,  Ps.  1505). 

turned  from  Babylon.  There  was,  however,  one  bond  be- 
tween the  two — there  had  been  a  considerable  intermarrying. 
But  as  the  exclusive  spirit  grew  stronger  in  Judea  this  right 
of  intermarriage  became  a  serious  bone  of  contention  and  at 
last  caused  a  crisis.  Manasseh,  brother  of  the  Jewish  high 
priest,  had  married  the  daughter  of  a  Samaritan  magnate 
called  Sanballat  II  (not  Sanballat  I  of  Nehemiah's  day). 
The  narrower  religious  party  demanded  that  he  divorce  her. 
Rather  than  do  this,  Manasseh  withdrew  from  Jerusalem  at 
the  invitation  of  his  father-in-law,  taking  many  priests  Avith 
him  who  were  doubtless  in  a  similar  predicament,  and  with 
Sanballat's  money  established  a  rival  temple  on  Mount 
Gerizim. 

Henceforth  these  two  religious  groups  developed  side  by 
side,  each  charging  that  the  other  was  the  more  debased  in 
blood,  and  hating  each  other  more  and  more  cordially  until 
in  Jesus'  day  it  could  be  truthfully  said:  "Jews  have  no  deal- 
ings with  Samaritans."  It  was  this  condition  that  put  such  a 
sting  into  the  parable  in  which  Jesus  made  a  good  Samaritan 


292  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

rescue  the  highwayman's  victim  while  the  self-righteous 
priest  and  Levite  passed  by  on  the  other  side.  Down  to  the 
present  day  the  Samaritan  group  has  persisted,  though  re- 
duced to  less  than  two  hundred  individuals.  Jacob,  their 
high  priest,  still  worships  at  Mount  Gerizim  and  uses  a  copy 
of  the  same  old  Pentateuch  that  his  ancestor  brought  with 
him  from  Jerusalem.     (Fig.  111.) 

192.  Changes  in  Language  and  Thought.  While  the  re- 
ligious life  of  the  Jews  in  Palestine  was  growing  more  nar- 
row and  intense,  in  other  respects  the  world  was  impressing 
itself  upon  the  little  community.  Their  language  was  the 
first  thing  to  go.  In  those  days  Aramaic  was  the  language 
of  practically  all  the  nations  who  surrounded  them;  it  was 
the  language  of  business  and  government  throughout  Syria. 
Gradually  therefore,  through  necessity,  the  Jews  substituted 
the  Aramaic  for  the  classic  Hebrew,  until  in  the  course  of 
time  the  Hebrew  scriptures  were  an  unknown  tongue,  and 
when  read  in  public  had  to  be  translated,  or  "  targumed,"  by 
the  reader,  verse  by  verse.  For  popular  use  there  were  copies 
of  the  law  in  Aramaic.  These  Aramaic  targums  formed 
that  Bible  which  the  Jew  knew  by  heart.     (See  Fig.  119.) 

Contact  with  Persia  also  introduced  ideas  that  were  des- 
tined to  have  a  growing  fascination  for  the  Jewish  mind. 
While  the  Persian  religion  with  its  good  god  Ahura  Mazda 
helped  to  confirm  the  Jewish  conception  of  only  one  God,  it 
introduced  the  notion  that  there  were  countless  semi-divine 
creatures  who  did  his  bidding.  These  the  Jews  adopted  as 
angels,  and  in  due  course  enlarged  and  systematized  their 
duties  until  there  was  very  little  left  for  Jehovah  to  do. 
Parallel  to  these  was  a  series  of  angels  of  opposite  nature, 
taking  their  character  from  Ahriman,  the  great  opponent 
of  Ahura  Mazda.  These  were  demons,  with  Satan  at  their 
head.  To  this  evil  one  were  now  transferred  some  of  the 
characteristics  of  Jehovah  that  the  growing  moral  concep- 
tions of  the  Jews  could  not  reconcile  with  the  divine  char- 
acter.     One  interesting  instance,   already   alluded   to    (Sec. 


CHANGES  IN  THOUGHT 


293 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Fig.    134— SAMARITAN    PASSOVER 

At  the  Passover  time  the  entire  Samaritan  community,  living  at  Nablus  and 
comprising  160  people,  encamps  for  ten  days  on  the  top  of  Mount  Gerizim 
(Fig.  71).  On  the  evening  of  the  Passover  just  at  sunset  the  paschal  lambs 
are  killed,  skinned  and  roasted,  in  accordance  with  the  directions  in  Exo- 
dus. During  the  night  the  lambs  are  eaten  in  the  tents.  The  heads  of 
households  dress  in  white  for  the  ceremony.  All  before  the  Great  War 
wore  the  red  fez  or  cap,  symbol  of  Turkish  citizenship. 


294  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

67),  is  to  be  found  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Chronicles. 
In  the  former  we  read  (chap.  241)  that  in  a  fit  of  unprovoked 
anger  Jehovah  stirred  up  David  to  number  Israel.  But 
when  the  chronicler,  who  wrote  long  after  the  exile,  came  to 
record  the  same  incident  (I  Chron.  211),  he  ascribes  that  piece 
of  venom  to  Satan  ! 

193.  Tendencies  in  the  Persian  Period.  As  we  pass  in 
review  the  two  centuries  of  the  Persian  period  it  gives  us  the 
impression  of  a  long  and  pathetic  decline.  Though  the  Jews 
returned  from  captivity  with  high  hopes,  they  found  them- 
selves involved  in  a  losing  struggle  with  the  wicked  world. 
At  first  the  voice  of  prophecy  cheered  and  inspired  them 
(Haggai,  Zechariah,  the  second  Isaiah),  but  within  a  cen- 
tury that  voice  was  stilled  forever.  Turning  then  for  satis- 
faction to  the  performance  of  the  written  law,  the  religious 
genius  of  the  nation  became  narrower  in  its  sympathies  and 
more  intense  in  its  narrowness.  Members  of  the  Jewish 
community  who  were  less  exclusive  dropped  away  or  were 
driven  away  by  persecution  and  became  children  of  the 
dispersion  or  Samaritans,  until  at  last  a  mere  handful  was 
left,  petty,  intolerant  and  absolutely  devoted  to  the  law 
and  the  temple.  The  religion  of  the  heart,  responsive  to  the 
guidance  of  a  living  God,  had  stiffened  into  a  religion  of  form. 


XXVII 
WHEN  GREEK  MEETS  JEW 

194.  The  Coming  of  Alexander.  Alexander  the  Mace- 
donian burst  into  the  world  of  Asia  in  the  year  334  b.c. 
His  object  at  first  was  to  break  the  power  of  Persia  that  for 
a  century  had  disturbed  the  peace  of  Greece  by  means  of  its 
armies  and  its  spies;  but  in  order  to  break  that  power  he  had 
first  to  secure  possession  of  Asia  Minor,  then  Syria,  then 
Egypt.  He  thus  cut  rudely  across  a  world  that  had  hitherto 
been  wholly  Asiatic,  and  the  consequences  were  full  of  fate. 
The  first  year  he  beat  the  generals  of  Darius  at  the  Granicus 
and  liberated  from  despotic  sway  the  Greek  cities  of  the 
yEgean  coast.  In  333,  he  took  all  Asia  Minor  and  put  Darius 
himself  to  flight  at  Issus.  In  332  he  moved  down  the  Phoe- 
nician and  Philistine  coast,  and  by  destroying  Tyre  wrecked 
the  Persian  sea  power  while  by  taking  Gaza  he  secured  the 
entrance  to  Egypt.  In  331  he  not  only  conquered  Egypt 
but  retracing  his  steps  wrested  northern  Syria,  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Assyria  from  Darius's  hand.  Babylon  and  Susa, 
the  great  seats  of  Oriental  power,  became  his.  We  need  not 
follow  him  into  Afghanistan,  Bokhara,  Sarmacand,  India 
and  Beluchistan,  nor  pause  at  his  untimely  death-bed  at 
Babylon  in  323.  In  ten  years  he  had  mastered  the  world  in 
which  the  Jew  lived.  Henceforth  the  Jewish  world  faced  the 
west  rather  than  the  east. 

195.  His  Successors.  At  the  death  of  the  great  con- 
queror a  grand  scramble  for  the  fragments  of  his  empire  arose 
in  which  all  the  Macedonian  chiefs  participated.  Thirty 
years  of  chaos  followed,  at  the  end  of  which  the  contestants 
were  reduced  to  five,  each  carrying  on  the  fight  for  suprem- 
acy and  calling  himself  a  king.     Another  generation  passes 

295 


29G 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


by  and  the  five  have  been  reduced  to  three,  all  but  one  of 
them  descendants  of  the  original  fighters.  Two  of  these 
three  concern  our  story:  (1)  Ptolemy,  who  ruled  Egypt,  and 
(2)  Antiochus,  who  ruled  in  the  Mesopotamian  region. 


Fig.    135— "ALEXANDERS    COFFIN" 

One  of  the  most  exquisite  productions  of  Hellenistic  art,  found  with  many 
others  in  a  rock-cemetery  at  Sidon  in  1887.  Coffin  and  cover  are  each 
one  piece  of  pure  white  marble.  It  was  made  probably  at  Alexander's 
order  for  one  of  his  generals.  The  wonderful  frieze  represents  on  this  side 
Alexander  fighting  the  Persians  (at  Issus?).  Alexander  is  the  figure  on 
horseback  at  the  left.  On  the  other  side,  Alexander  with  Greek  and  Per- 
sian companions  is  hunting  lions.  All  the  figures  were  delicately  tinted. 
Art  of  this  kind  was  impossible  under  the  Hebrew  law  (Ex.  204). 

This  Ptolemy  was  a  Macedonian  chief  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Egypt  in  323  before  the  fighting  began, 
and  in  the  comparative  isolation  of  that  country  between  the 
deserts  had  managed  to  maintain  himself.  Using  the  newly 
founded  city  of  Alexandria  for  his  base,  he  had  absorbed  a 
large  part  of  the  sea  power  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Red  Sea.  Thus  enriched  he  was  able  to  found  a  dynasty  that 
continued  three  centuries,  until  Cleopatra,  its  last  and  most 
famous  representative,  fell  before  Caesar  Augustus. 


ALEXANDER'S  SUCCESSORS  297 

Seleucus,  the  original  ruler  in  the  north,  had  been  one  of 
Alexander's  generals  who  managed  to  outlive  all  his  com- 
petitors and  after  fifty-three  years  of  fighting  nearly  to 
grasp  all  of  Alexander's  empire,  Macedonia  and  Egypt  in- 
cluded. But  he  died  a  moment  too  soon.  His  son  Antiochus 
managed  to  salvage  everything  but  Egypt  and  Macedonia 
and  to  found  the  royal  house  of  the  Seleucids  that  lasted  until 
Rome  put  an  end  to  it.  In  a  few  years  the  borders  of  his 
realm  fell  away  to  revolting  governors  or  native  princes  and 
the  Seleucid  kingdom  settled  down  within  the  limits  of 
Syria,  Mesopotamia  and  Armenia,  with  its  capital  at  the 
newly  founded  city  of  Antioch  on  the  Orontes  River.  Both 
the  Ptolemies  and  the  Seleucids,  it  must  be  remembered,  were 
Macedonians,  educated  in  Greek  ideas.  They  were  alwTays 
foreign  tyrants  to  the  peoples  over  whom  they  ruled. 

196.  The  Fate  of  Palestine.  Palestine  was  the  unhappy 
frontier  between  these  two  kingdoms  of  Egypt  and  Syria 
and  was  the  occasion  of  a  standing  quarrel  between  them. 
Ptolemy  needed  it,  for  it  controlled  the  caravan  routes  to 
India  and  Arabia,  and  it  grew  the  only  timber  in  the  Levant 
for  the  ships  by  which  his  wealth  and  throne  were  main- 
tained. His  ambition  to  keep  up  his  sea  power  made  it 
necessary  for  him  to  control  Tyre  and  Sidon  with  the  terri- 
tory behind.  He  had  claimed  Palestine  when  first  he  became 
governor  of  Egypt,  but  when  the  chaos  of  320  B.C.  was  let 
loose,  Antigonus  the  temporary  master  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Syria  took  it  and  captured  and  dismantled  Jerusalem.  When 
Antigonus  was  downed  by  a  league  of  four  kings  in  301, 
Palestine  fell  again  to  Ptolemy.  When  at  length  Seleucus 
came  to  power  in  northern  Syria  he  recognized  the  great 
value  of  Palestine  to  his  kingdom,  but  generously  refused  to 
fight  his  old  friend  Ptolemy  for  it.  In  the  next  generation, 
however,  war  broke  out  between  the  two  houses — a  hundred 
years'  war.  Antiochus  II  extended  his  border  as  far  south  as 
Damascus,  and  then  the  two  armies  thrashed  back  and  forth 
across  the  plains  of  Philistia  and  Galilee.    Jerusalem,  perched 


298  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

on  her  rocky  eyrie,  was  a  spectator  of  all  this  and  passed  from 
one  control  to  the  other,  not  especially  disturbed  by  the  rapid 
changes  in  the  standards  that  gleamed  over  her  gates. 

In  223  B.C.,  a  hundred  years  after  Alexander's  death, 
there  came  to  the  Syrian  throne  a  man  who  finally  settled 
the  quarrel.  He  was  Antiochus  IV,  called  the  Great.  He 
conquered  Palestine  in  218,  lost  it  in  217  and  won  it  again 
in  198  by  a  battle  fought  at  Banias,  near  the  source  of  the 
Jordan.  With  this  event  Egyptian  control  ceases,  never  to 
be  revived  except  for  a  brief  time  or  two  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

All  of  these  political  and  military  events  are  the  least 
significant  parts  of  the  history.  What  made  this  period 
fateful  for  the  Jews  was  the  introduction  of  Hellenism. 

197.  The  Meaning  of  Hellenism.  Alexander  was  vastly 
more  than  a  conqueror,  he  was  an  apostle.  While  his  pri- 
mary object  in  the  East  had  been  to  square  old  scores  with 
Persia,  he  soon  came  to  regard  himself  as  a  messenger  of 
Greek  civilization  to  a  benighted  and  stunted  world.  Though 
himself  a  Macedonian  and  not  a  Greek,  his  education  under 
the  famous  philosopher  Aristotle  had  been  nothing  but 
Greek,  and  the  ideas  that  had  shaped  the  fortunes  of  Greece 
and  produced  the  glories  of  Athenian  art  and  literature  and 
civic  life  appealed  mightily  to  the  imagination  of  this  boy 
genius.  He  resolved  to  conquer  the  world  for  Greek  cul- 
ture. This  Greek  culture  that  took  root  beyond  the  boun- 
daries of  Greece  is  called  Hellenism. 

Alexander's  methods  of  spreading  Hellenism  were  truly 
Hellenic.  The  civilization  of  Greece  was  essentially  a  city 
product,  evolved  by  the  complex  life  of  cities  and  best 
reproduced  in  cities.  Therefore  Alexander  founded  cities 
everywhere,  naming  them  frequently  after  himself;  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt,  Alexandria  on  the  shore  at  Issus,  Alexan- 
dria in  Babylonia,  in  Sogdiana,  Oxiana,  India.  These  cities 
were  peopled  wholly  or  in  part  by  his  veterans,  and  many 
other  cities  like  Samaria  in  Palestine  were  given  to  them  as 
well.     Within  twenty  years  from  the  time  when  Alexander 


THE  MEANING  OF  HELLENISM 


299 


crossed  the  Hellespont  the  Eastern  world  was  studded  with 
these  fortresses  of  Greek  culture;  the  great  highways  of  the 
world  were  beaconed  with  them.     Aping  the  ways  of  the 


ALEXANDRIA 

from  lOOB.C.tolOOAJ). 


Fig.    136— MAP    OF    ALEXANDRIA 

Alexandria  was  founded  331  b.c.  Beginning  with  the  first  Ptolemy,  323  B.C., 
the  city  became  the  resort  of  artists  and  scholars  and  scientists.  For  the 
benefit  of  these  a  library  was  founded  in  the  Museum,  or  University.  It 
contained  900,000  scrolls  by  Caesar's  time,  when  it  was  burned.  Jews 
settled  here  from  the  first.  They  lived  under  their  own  laws  in  the  north- 
eastern end  of  the  town,  separated  from  the  other  nationalities  by  a  wall. 
In  Roman  times  the  Jewish  merchants  controlled  the  important  grain 
trade  by  which  the  chief  cities  of  the  empire  were  fed  (Acts  27°,  3S,  28u). 
The  famous  stone  lighthouse  called  Pharos,  built  to  facilitate  commerce, 
was  370  feet  high  and  lasted  till  1326  a.d.  During  the  second  and  third 
centuries  of  our  era,  Alexandria  was  the  intellectual  centre  of  Christendom, 
as  it  had  been  of  Judaism  in  the  first  century  and  of  classical  culture  in 
the  first  century  b.c.  For  a  description  of  the  city  of  the  fifth  century  a.d. 
see  Kingsley's  Hypatia,  chaps.  2  and  5. 


conqueror,   the   subject  nations   began   to   make   over  their 
cities  after  the  pattern  set  before  them. 

198.  Its  City  Organization.  The  East  had  always  had  cit- 
ies, but  they  were  for  the  most  part  mere  groups  of  houses 
and    men,    places   of   safety   from    attack   or   collections    of 


300  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

bazaars  for  trade.  They  were  ruled  by  a  tyrant.  Politically 
the  inhabitants  were  slaves.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Greek 
cities  were  always  free.  Magistrates  were  elected  annually 
by  all  the  citizens.  There  was  a  council  or  senate.  The  de- 
crees of  this  senate  were  registered  on  stone  or  bronze,  and 
posted  in  the  market-place.  The  main  business  of  a  typical 
Greek  was  to  discuss  public  affairs,  to  serve  as  juror  or  as- 
semblyman, and  to  follow  intellectual  pursuits  generally, 
while  slaves  attended  to  the  world's  work. 

199.  Its  Love  of  Life  and  Amusements.  A  Greek  was 
brought  up  on  the  idea  that  life  is  good  and  ought  to  be 
enjoyed.  The  foundation  of  a  happy  life  is  health.  In  every 
Greek  city,  then,  the  gymnasium  was  the  popular  institu- 
tion. Thither  all  young  men  went  to  train  their  bodies,  there 
they  practised  their  games,  there  they  met  their  friends  as 
in  a  club,  and  in  this  social  centre  they  cultivated  that 
natural  point  of  view  that  contrasts  so  markedly  with  the 
religious  point  of  view  of  the  Jews.  To  the  Greek  the  chief 
end  of  man  was  not  to  glorify  God  but  to  enjoy  life  forever 
in  all  its  fulness. 

The  out-of-door  life  of  the  Greek  tended  to  sport  and  play. 

musement  there  always  was  in  plenty,  but  there  was  some- 
thing intellectual  about  even  the  recreation  of  a  Greek.  His 
games  were  trials  of  skill  rather  than  strength;  his  festivals 
usually  had  literary  features:  music,  poetry,  dancing.  His 
great  literature  had  grown  up  around  the  theatre  as  well  as 
in  the  court-room  and  the  council-chamber.  In  Palestine,  on 
the  contrary,  we  read  of  no  sports  nor  physical  or  intellec- 
tual interests  like  these,  except  the  social  joys  of  a  feast-day. 

200.  Greek  Art  and  Architecture.  The  life  and  interests 
of  a  Greek  tended  to  embody  themselves  in  definite  archi- 
tectural forms.  There  had  to  be  an  assembly  building  and 
a  court-house  for  the  transaction  of  public  business.  There 
must  be  a  theatre  for  dramatic  presentations  and  shows  of 
various  kinds;  a  gymnasium  for  training,  a  stadium  for 
athletic  contests,  a  hippodrome  for  chariot-racing.      Every 


GREEK  ART  AND  ARCHITECTURE    301 

well-ordered  city  should  have  a  colonnaded  street  where  the 
best  shops  are  found;  an  agora  or  market-place  where  trade 
and  friendly  discussion  go  hand  in  hand:  a  stoa  or  pillared 
porch  where  gentlemen  of  leisure  may  lounge  in  the  heat  of 
the  day.  All  these  types  of  building  would  also  be  adorned 
with  sculpture:  statues  of  the  gods,  of  great  citizens,  of  ath- 
letes, literary  men  and  saviors  of  the  city.  A  city  without 
art  was  unthinkable  to  a  Greek.  (See  Fig.  140.)  With  all 
this,  contrast  the  huddled  hovels  of  the  East,  the  unadorned 
and  squalid  streets  of  an  Oriental  city,  the  formless  bazaars. 
Only  the  king's  palace  and  the  god's  temple  stood  out  from 
the  general  mass.  In  Jerusalem  even  these  lacked  sculptured 
ornament,  for  the  stern  command,  "  Thou  shalt  not  make 
unto  thee  any  graven  image  or  the  likeness  of  anything," 
shut  the  door  in  the  face  of  art. 

201.  Greek  Language  and  Literature.  The  Greeks  had  a 
great  and  a  justifiable  pride  in  their  language.  It  was  an 
instrument  of  precision  and  of  beauty  in  comparison  with 
which  all  other  speech  seemed  barbarous.  With  it  they  had 
created  great  works  of  literary  art  which  surpassed  all  other 
literatures  except  the  Hebrew  and  which  have  inspired  men 
down  to  our  own  day.  The  spread  of  Hellenism  was  therefore 
largely  dependent  on  the  spread  of  the  Greek  language.  It 
is  marvellous  to  see  how  this  tongue  blotted  out  the  use  of 
all  other  languages  of  the  East  for  cultural  purposes.  The 
ignorant,  of  course,  clung  all  along  to  their  native  dialects, 
but  the  language  of  business,  of  government,  of  literature, 
philosophy  and  art  became  Greek.  Native  literatures  sim- 
ply died.  Lucian  the  Syrian  (120-200  a.d.)  puts  down  his 
witticisms  in  the  language  of  Alexander,  while  the  Syrian 
Meleager  (60  b.c.)  collected  in  his  great  anthology  not  a 
single  Aramaic  poem,  but  only  Greek  ones,  while  his  own 
one  hundred  and  thirty  love  epigrams  are  all  in  the  Greek 
tongue. 

So  universal  did  the  use  of  Greek  become  for  the  Jews  of 
the  dispersion  that  during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus 


302 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


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(250  b.c.)  the  sacred  books  of 
the  Jews  began  to  be  trans- 
lated into  that  language  in 
Alexandria.  By  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era  our  entire 
Old  Testament  was  finished, 
and  the  "  Septuagint,"  as  it  is 
now  called,  became  the  Bible 
of  the  Jewish  world.  In  Pales- 
tine itself  this  version  largely 
supplanted  the  Aramaic  ones. 
Jesus  perhaps  read  from  it  in 
the  synagogue  at  Nazareth. 
Paul  always  quoted  from  it. 
When  therefore  the  New  Tes- 
tament was  written  in  the  first 
Christian  century,  its  language 
throughout  was  that  of  the 
great  Macedonian  conqueror. 
202.  Greek  Manners  and 
Customs.     Greek  fashions  fol- 

Fig.    137— THE   SEPTUAGINT 

Facsimile  of  Esther  23-8  taken  from 
the  Leipzic  portion  of  the  Codex 
Sinaiticus  written  in  the  fourth  or 
fifth  century  of  our  era.  Forty- 
three  leaves  of  this  manuscript 
were  picked  out  of  a  waste-basket 
in  the  monastery  of  Saint  Catherine 
on  Mount  Sinai,  by  the  great  bibli- 
cal scholar  Tischendorf  in  1 844 .  In 
1859,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
emperor  of  Russia  Tischendorf 
again  visited  the  monastery  and 
recovered  all  that  remained.  The 
MS.  consists  of  390  quarto  leaves 
of  fine  vellum,  written  hi  Greek 
uncials  (capitals)  four  or  two  col- 
umns to  the  page.  Originally  it 
contained  the  whole  Bible  besides 
the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  the 
"Shepherd"  of  Hermas. 


GREEK  CUSTOMS  303 

lowed  the  conqueror.  The  months  of  the  year  were  all  re- 
named after  the  Greek  style,  and  the  year  when  Seleucus 
conquered  Antigonus  (312  B.C.)  became  the  point  from  which 
dates  were  reckoned,  and  continued  to  be  with  the  Jews  down 
to  the  Middle  Ages.  Personal  names  were  often  changed: 
the  Hebrew  Solomon  became  the  Greek  Alexander,  Joseph 
became  Menelaus,  Judas  became  Aristobulus.  Many  in- 
habitants of  Judea  and  Jerusalem  even  assumed  the  title 
"Citizens  of  Antioch."  All  this  looks  like  fawning  on  the 
victor.  Dress,  too,  assumed  a  foreign  cut.  Young  Jews  now 
appeared  in  the  Greek  mantle  and  broad-brimmed  hat,  in 
fact,  joined  the  semi-political  and  semi-social  guild  of  the 
Ephoboi — Young  Men's  Greek  Association — of  which  these 
were  the  insignia.  Well  might  the  pious  people  of  Jerusalem 
think  that  the  world  was  turning  topsy-turvy. 

203.  Hellenism  and  Judaism.  One  must  not  imagine  that 
Hellenism  was  an  unmixed  blessing  to  the  East,  great  as  its 
gifts  were.  Political  freedom  often  meant  political  license, 
it  meant  the  arts  of  the  demagogue,  it  meant  squabbles  in 
politics,  rivalries,  and  even  assassinations.  The  gymnasium 
meant  too  often  an  emphasis  on  lewdness  and  the  life  of  the 
beast,  and  an  elevation  of  the  athlete  into  a  hero  beside 
whom  the  gods  were  pale.  And  in  general,  men  admired 
cleverness  rather  than  righteousness.  This  tendency  opened 
the  way  for  a  decline  in  public  and  private  life,  until  the 
old-fashioned  virtues  of  honesty,  loyalty,  sincerity  gave  place 
only  too  frequently  to  trickery  and  vice.  It  was  a  rotten 
Hellenism  that  debauched  Byzantium  and  Rome  and  pre- 
pared the  way  in  the  fifth  century  of  our  era  for  the  deluge 
of  the  barbarians. 

The  means  by  which  Hellenism  slowly  inundated  the  East 
have  been  hinted  in  the  preceding  paragraphs.  While  Jeru- 
salem, hugging  its  law-book  and  practising  its  narrow  right- 
eousness in  its  out-of-the-way  mountain  fastness,  resisted  the 
influence  for  a  long  time,  it  felt  at  last  the  full  impact  of  it. 
The  dispersion  had  already  largely  gone  down  under  it.    Alex- 


304  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

andria  became  its  special  stronghold.  There  the  Jew  rapidly 
succumbed  to  Greek  habits  of  life;  indeed,  he  found  it 
especially  advantageous  to  do  so,  for  thereby  his  varied 
talents  could  be  used  for  advancement  in  business,  learning, 
and  the  state.  At  Jerusalem  the  point  of  entrance  for  Hellen- 
ism was  through  the  aristocratic  classes.  These  people  soon 
found  that  if  they  expected  to  get  anywherein  the  political 
world  they  must  stand  in  well  with  Hellenism.  Solicited  on 
all  sides  in  subtle  and  attractive  ways,  the  young  men  of 
wealth  conceived  an  ambition  to  be  men  of  the  world,  to 
burst  the  bonds  that  held  them  in  barren  Judea  and  see  the 
lands  beyond,  to  know  other  and  more  famous  civilizations, 
to  take  on  a  broader  culture  and  to  remove  the  reproach  of 
being  a  peculiar  people.  Hellenism  proved  wonderfully  at- 
tractive to  all  worldly  minded  Jews.  Its  paths  seemed  pleas- 
ant to  the  young,  the  idle,  and  the  rich;  but  they  knew  not 
whither  these  paths  led.  They  led  to  the  greatest  struggle 
the  Jew  ever  experienced,  in  which  his  religion  was  all  but 
extinguished. 


XXVIII 
THE  DEATH-GRAPPLE  FOR  RELIGIOUS  FREEDOM 

204.  The  Rise  of  the  Pious.  While  Hellenism  was  slowly 
penetrating  the  life  and  thought  of  the  Jew,  opposite  influ- 
ences were  at  work.  As  the  aristocracy  turned  their  sym- 
pathies toward  things  Greek,  the  middle  and  lower  classes 
stiffened  themselves  to  resist.  More  and  more  tenaciously 
they  clung  to  the  law  and  the  customs  of  their  fathers,  and 
with  hearts  of  foreboding  they  looked  for  some  weapon  with 
which  to  fight  the  incoming  tide.  There  arose  at  length  a  new 
party  that  struggled  with  the  old  aristocracy  for  the  con- 
trol of  the  policies  of  state.  They  called  themselves  the 
Godly  or  the  Pious,  and  they  branded  the  Hellenists  in  derision 
as  the  worldly  party.  Some  of  the  higher  class  were  enrolled 
among  the  godly,  including  even  the  high  priest,  but  for  the 
most  part  the  ranks  were  recruited  from  the  poorer  classes 
and  from  villages  outside  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  the  old  and 
never-ending  story  of  liberals  against  conservatives. 

205.  The  Villain  of  the  Play.  The  contest  of  Hellenism 
with  Judaism  might  have  gjne  on  without  serious  break  until 
one  side  or  the  other  won  a  peaceful  victory.  But  just  at  the 
critical  moment  the  great  Antiochus  died,  and  a  period  of 
assassination  and  civil  war  at  length  brought  to  the  throne 
Antiochus  IV,  called  Epiphanes  (175  B.C.).  He  combined 
the  most  diverse  characteristics.  In  youth  he  had  been  a 
hostage  in  Rome.  After  his  liberation  he  studied  philosophy 
and  rhetoric  at  Athens  and  became  an  enthusiastic  lover  of 
Hellenism.  Everything  Greek  became  his  passion.  The 
year  after  his  accession,  he  began  to  build  at  Athens  one  of 
the  largest  temples  to  the  Olympian  Zeus  ever  constructed, 

305 


306 


THE   HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH 


the  remains  of  whose  enormous  columns  still  excite  the  ad- 
miration of  the  traveller.  Highly  impulsive  and  of  tremen- 
dous will,  he  conceived  schemes  overnight  and  annihilated 


From  Breasted's  "Ancient  Times." 

Fig.    138— MODERN    ANTIOCH 

The  ancient  city  of  Antioch  was  founded  by  Seleucus  after  he  became  master 
of  Asia  (301  b.c.)  and  named  after  his  father  Antiochus.  It  finally  be- 
came a  great  commercial  centre  with  several  hundred  thousand  inhabi- 
tants, rivalling  even  Alexandria.  For  a  vivid  description  of  the  city  in  the 
time  of  its  glory,  see  Wallace's  Ben  Hur,  Books  IV  and  V.  Antioch  was 
the  place  where  a  Christian  community  was  first  formed  independent  of 
the  Jewish  synagogue,  and  here  the  members  of  the  sect  were  first  called 
Christians  (Acts  ll26).  From  Antioch,  Paul  started  on  his  missionary 
travels  (Acts  134).  Antioch  thus  became  the  cradle  of  Gentile  Chris- 
tianity. 

The  city  has  been  repeatedly  destroyed  by  fire  and  earthquake.  Its  present 
population  is  28,000.  Judging  from  the  picture,  what  is  their  religion  ? 
Try  to  discover  traces  of  walls.  The  building  on  the  sky-line  in  the  saddle 
is  a  castle  built  by  the  crusaders.  The  ancient  city  lay  above  the  modern 
one,  on  the  slope  of  the  mountain. 


whatever  stood  in  the  way  of  realizing  them.  A  large  mea- 
sure of  practical  ability  was  his  also;  he  was  a  good  general 
and  a  consummate  diplomat,  largely  because  of  a  scandalous 
lack  of  honor.  But  there  was  a  rift  in  his  nature,  indicated 
by  his  constant  tendency  to  play  pranks,  and  an  insane  con- 


THE   VILLAIN  OF  THE   PLAY 


307 


ceit  that  led  him  to  assume  divine  honors.  On  his  coins  he 
put  the  words,  "Theos  Epiphanes"  (the  god  made  manifest), 
which  some  wag,  with  more  truth  than  fiction,  promptly 
changed  to  "Epimanes"  (cracked).  He  had  the  shrewdness 
to  see  that  his  ill-assorted  empire  could  best  be  bound  to- 
gether by  a  common  culture,  and  there- 
fore he  resolved  to  make  Hellenism 
universal. 

206.  The  First  Move  Against  Juda- 
ism. The  accession  of  Antiochus  made 
an  immediate  difference  at  Jerusalem: 
it  strengthened  the  hands  of  the  Hel- 
lenizing  party.  The  leader  of  this  party 
was  one  Jason,  a  brother  of  the  high 
priest  Onias  who  was  leader  of  the 
pious.  By  bribery  at  the  Syrian  court 
Jason  had  himself  appointed  high  priest 
and  his  brother  exiled.  He  procured  at 
the  same  time  permission  to  remodel 
the  city  along  Greek  lines.  At  once  he 
built  a  gymnasium  almost  under  the 
temple  walls  and  instituted  athletic 
sports.  The  young  men  of  the  aristoc- 
racy went  over  writh  a  will  to  the  new 
point  of  view.  They  formed  a  guild  of  the  Ephoboi  and 
flaunted  their  Greek  cloaks  and  broad-brimmed  hats  about 
the  streets  and  in  the  temple  area.  To  be  an  athlete  be- 
came the  craze.  Even  the  priests  caught  the  mania,  regard- 
less of  the  fact  that  the  sports  were  instituted  in  honor  of 
the  demigod  Heracles.  According  to  the  author  of  Macca- 
bees, they  left  their  sacrifices  unperformed  in  order  to  see 
the  sport  in  the  stadium  and  to  participate  in  the  games. 
Naturally,  the  pious  were  scandalized.  From  our  modern 
and  largely  Hellenic  point  of  view  there  is  nothing  godless  in 
athletic  sports,  but  there  seemed  to  be  much  that  was  god- 
less for  the  Jew.      It  would  be  nearer  the  truth  to  say  that 


Fig.      139  — COIN      OF 
ANTIOCHUS    IV 
(Epiphanes) 
King  of  Syria 
175-164  b.c. 
A  silver  stater,  worth  per- 
haps 67  cents,  equiva- 
lent to   four  ancient 
Greek  drachmas.    In 
Jesus'     time     the 
stater  was  used  inter- 
changeably with  the 
Jewish  shekel. 


308  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

it  was  the  newness  and  the  difference  rather  than  the  god- 
lessness  that  shocked  him.  Yet  the  pious  were  essentially 
right.  Judaism  could  not  yield  up  its  major  interest  in 
religion  and  its  devotion  to  the  moral  law  without  running 
the  risk  of  annihilation.  If  Hellenism  succeeded  in  Pales- 
tine Judaism  was  doomed. 

207.  Further  Irritations.  One  Menelaus — note  that  all  the 
names  are  Greek — now  supplanted  Jason  by  bribing  Anti- 
ochus,  using  for  the  purpose  not  only  taxes  newly  wrung 
from  the  people  but  some  of  the  temple  treasure.  In  reply 
to  the  protests  of  the  pious  he  caused  their  leader,  the  exiled 
Onias,  to  be  put  to  death.  Jerusalem  was  now  ablaze  with 
anger.  At  that  critical  moment  (172  B.C.),  war  broke  out 
between  Antiochus  and  Egypt,  and  Antiochus  marched  into 
the  delta.  When  report  came  that  Antiochus  had  been 
killed  in  battle,  the  opponents  of  Menelaus  and  all  that  he 
stood  for  rose  in  rebellion  and  put  an  end  to  the  hated  ones 
by  wholesale  murder.  The  report  about  Antiochus,  however, 
proved  to  be  false.  On  his  return  from  Egypt,  Antiochus 
turned  aside  to  punish  Jerusalem,  and  punish  her  he  did 
most  mercilessly.  Not  only  were  the  tables  turned  and  the 
pious  slaughtered,  but  the  temple  was  wholly  looted  of  its 
treasure.  The  avenger  polluted  the  Holy  of  Holies  by  en- 
tering it  in  person,  stole  the  golden  altar,  the  candlestick, 
the  cups,  the  censers,  and  even  scaled  off  all  the  gold  plat- 
ing on  the  face  of  the  building. 

208.  The  Abomination  of  Desolation.  Angered  and  em- 
bittered by  later  political  events,  Antiochus  then  decided  to 
root  out  forever  the  Jewish  religion  that  stood  in  the  way 
of  realizing  his  policy  of  Hellenizing  the  Jews.  He  made 
proclamation  that  all  Jewish  religious  customs  should  cease: 
there  should  be  no  more  Sabbath,  no  circumcision,  no  clean 
and  unclean  food,  no  sacrifice  to  Jehovah;  and  that  whoever 
should  be  found  to  possess  a  book  of  the  law  should  be  put  to 
death.  He  forthwith  sent  ah  army  of  22,000  to  carry  his 
edict  into  effect.     Taking  advantage  of  the  Jewish  refusal  to 


THE   ABOMINATION  OF   DESOLATION         309 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 
Fig.    140— JERASH 

One  of  the  best  extant  examples  of  a  Graeco-Roman  city  In  the  foreground 
is  a  semi-circular  forum  adorned  with  56  columns.  Leading  from  this  is 
a  street  half  a  mile  long,  flanked  by  520  columns  of  which  75  are  still  stand- 
ing. The  group  of  pillars  to  the  left  belong  to  a  larger  temple  to  the  sun, 
on  a  terrace  527  feet  by  344  feet.  The  columns  are  45  feet  high.  The 
four  columns  seen  between  this  temple  and  the  forum  belong  to  the  basilica 
or  law  court  (Fig.  148).  The  heap  of  rubbish  above  the  forum  to  the  right 
is  the  baths.  Not  shown  in  the  picture  are  a  triumphal  gateway  (behind 
us),  a  naumachia  or  theatre  170  yards  long  and  60  broad,  for  the  represen- 
tation of  naval  battles,  an  elliptical  circus  295  feet  by  180,  several  temples, 
two  theatres — one  of  them  with  32  rows  of  seats  and  the  other  with  19 — 
intended  for  gladiatorial  shows,  and  four  churches  dating  of  course  from 
Christian  times. 

The  city,  lying  east  of  the  Jordan  in  the  Decapolis,  is  first  mentioned  by  Alex- 
ander Jannaeus  (104-78  b.c):  its  freedom  was  restored  by  Pompey;  its 
most  prosperous  period  was  the  second  and  third  centuries  of  our  era.  Ly- 
ing on  the  great  Roman  road,  it  was  considered  in  the  fourth  century  one  of 
the  largest  and  strongest  towns  in  Arabia.  With  the  coming  of  the  Arabs 
in  the  seventh  century  its  prosperity  waned ,  while  a  decreasing  rainfall  hast- 
ened its  depopulation.  To-day  there  are  1,500  people  where  once  there 
were  at  least  30,000. 


310  THE   HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH 

fight  on  the  Sabbath,  the  troops  entered  Jerusalem,  dis- 
mantled the  temple,  pulled  down  the  walls,  looted  and 
burned  the  homes,  and  sold  into  slavery  hordes  of  women 
and  children.  Then  adding  insult  to  injury,  in  December, 
168  B.C.,  they  built  an  altar  to  the  Olympian  Zeus  in  place 
of  Jehovah's  great  altar  of  sacrifice,  put  up  in  the  sacred 
precinct  a  statue  to  the  same  pagan  deity,  probably  bearing 
the  likeness  of  Antiochus,  and  by  force  compelled  the  Jews 
to  worship  it  by  offering  swine's  flesh.  This  statue  of  Zeus 
was  what  the  book  of  Daniel  calls  the  "Abomination  of  Des- 
olation." It  marks  the  point  of  despair  below  which  a  Jew 
could  not  descend.  To  the  pious  it  seemed  as  if  the  God 
were  dead  who  could  suffer  such  defilement  without  defend- 
ing himself.  Many  of  the  Jews  went  over  openly  to  the 
heathenism  of  the  conqueror,  while  others  of  sterner  stuff 
fled  from  the  insults  and  the  sword  and  took  refuge  in  the 
caves  of  the  wilderness.  Antiochus  had  not  reckoned  with 
the  temper  of  this  adamantine  remnant.  The  hunted  people, 
brought  at  length  to  bay,  were  soon  to  turn  and  spring  at 
the  hunter  like  a  tiger. 

209.  Biblical  Echoes  of  the  Great  Scourging.  In  the 
darkness  of  this  midnight  hour  we  can  best  discover  the 
heroic  temper  of  the  Jewish  faith.  It  lights  for  us  with 
sublimity  the  pages  of  scripture,  both  when  it  implores  for 
divine  help  and  when  it  boldly  rises  to  claim  victory.  How 
the  cry  of  anguish  rings  from  Psalm  79: 

"O  God,  the  heathen  have  come  into  thine  inheritance. 
Thy  holy  temple  have  they  defiled. 
They  have  laid  Jerusalem  in  heaps. 
The  dead  bodies  of  thy  servants  have  they  given  as  food 

to  the  birds  of  heaven, 
The  flesh  of  thy  saints  to  the  beasts  of  the  earth. 
Their   blood   have   they   shed   like   water  round   about 

Jerusalem, 
And  there  was  none  to  bury  them!" 


ECHOES  OF   THE   GREAT   SCOURGING        311 

The  prayers  go  up  like  incense  from  many  another  Psalm, 
prayers  for  rescue,  prayers  for  vengeance  on  their  foes, 
prayers  for  forgiveness  for  the  sins  that  have  brought  such 
terrible  retribution  (Ps.  74,  83,  etc.).  But  the  noblest 
product  of  this  experience  is  the  book  of  Daniel,  a  book  im- 
possible to  understand  except  in  the  light  of  the  tragedy 
that  brought  it  forth.  In  the  first  six  chapters  the  author 
seeks  to  encourage  the  faithful  by  reciting  the  noble  deeds  of 
their  ancestors  during  the  exile:  of  Daniel  who  would  not  de- 
file himself  with  the  king's  meat  nor  cease  to  pray  with  his 
window  open  toward  Jerusalem;  of  Shadrach,  Meshach  and 
Abednego,  who  endured  the  furnace  rather  than  worship 
the  king's  golden  image.  Then  he  recites  the  history  of  the 
past  in  the  guise  of  prophetic  symbols  and  visions.  By 
Nebuchadrezzar's  dream  and  similar  devices  he  shows  the 
rise  of  Persia,  Greece  and  Syria,  culminating  in  the  perse- 
cutions of  Antiochus,  and  then  proclaims  the  glorious  hope 
that  in  these  days  shall  the  God  of  heaven  set  up  a  kingdom 
that  shall  never  be  destroyed.  The  significance  of  the  book 
lies  in  the  thought  that  throughout  all  history,  even  in  its 
darkest  hours,  runs  the  divine  purpose,  and  that  faith  in  God 
will  bring  the  dawn.  Though  the  author  did  not  know  it,  the 
dawn  was  already  breaking. 

210.  Mattathias  and  His  Sons.  During  the  persecutions 
an  aged  priest  named  Mattathias  had  betaken  himself  with 
his  five  sons  to  his  country  residence  at  Modin  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  hill-country  toward  Philistia.  Officers  of  An- 
tiochus, hunting  everywhere  for  victims,  at  length  came  to 
Modin.  They  erected  an  altar  for  the  king  and  required 
Mattathias  as  head  man  of  the  town  to  offer  the  first  sac- 
rifice, promising  in  return  for  his  obedience  much  gold  and 
the  king's  favor.  Indignantly  he  spurned  their  blasphemous 
orders,  and  when  a  villager  came  forward  to  perform  the 
heathen  sacrifice,  the  old  man  flew  upon  him  in  a  rage  and 
killed  him.  Then  he  ran  his  sword  through  the  royal  com- 
missioner, threw  down  the  altar  and  issued  his  call  to  the 


312 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


Fig.    141— THEATRE    AT    AMMAN 

The  modern  Amman  lies  within  a  Graeco-Roman  city  built  by  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphia (285-247  b  c.)  on  the  site  of  the  old  Rabbath  Amnion  that  David 
captured  (11  Sam.  12-6-31)  and  named  after  himself,  Philadelphia.  In  the 
days  of  its  splendor  it  was  an  important  member  of  the  Decapolis.  Like 
Jerash  (Fig.  140)  it  contained  the  usual  public  buildings — temples,  baths, 
a  forum,  theatres,  and  colonnaded  streets. 

The  great  theatre  is  seen  in  the  centre  of  the  picture.  The  seats  are  arranged 
in  three  tiers,  in  the  lowest  of  which  five  rows  of  seats  are  visible,  in  the 
second  fourteen  and  in  the  highest  sixteen.  Between  the  second  and  third 
sections  and  above  the  third  are  boxes  for  spectators.  The  theatre  easily 
holds  4,000  people.  Its  acoustic  properties  are  excellent.  The  stage  has 
disappeared. 

The  heap  of  ruins  in  the  left  foreground  is  the  Odeum,  a  small  theatre  for  musi- 
cal performances 

The  picture  is  taken  from  the  citadel  in  the  assault  of  which  Uriah,  the  husband 
of  Bathsheba,  was  killed  (II  Sam.  II'-3--4). 


men  of  Modin:  "Whosoever  is  zealous  for  the  law  and  loyal 
to  the  covenant  let  him  follow  me."  Thereupon  the  gallant 
leader,  his  five  sons  and  other  daring  men,  fled  to  the 
wilderness  and  proclaimed  deathless  war  against  the  per- 
secutor. 


THE   OPEN   REVOLT  313 

211.  The  Open  Revolt  and  the  Unequal  Contest.  A  mot- 
ley company  soon  gathered  to  them,  men  of  all  kinds,  from 
desperadoes  to  the  pious.  Mattathias  led  them  up  and  down 
the  country,  tipping  over  altars  and  punishing  with  the  sword 
all  renegade  Jews  wherever  found.  His  headquarters  was 
the  nearest  cave,  his  equipment  and  commissary  whatever 
he  could  find.  But  the  rough  life  was  too  much  for  the  old 
man  and  he  soon  died,  having  first  named  his  son  Simon  as 
chief  counsellor  and  his  son  Judas  as  captain.  Time  revealed 
the  father's  good  judgment,  for  Simon  was  indeed  wise  and. 
Judas  a  born  leader  whose  marvellous  success  soon  won  for 
him  the  name  Maccabseus  (the  Hammerer).  Indeed,  there 
are  few  captains  in  the  annals  of  time  who  surpass  in  mili- 
tary insight,  albeit  on  a  contracted  field,  the  indomitable 
Judas. 

Judas  ought  to  have  known  that  his  cause,  humanly 
speaking,  was  hopeless.  His  race,  because  of  their  peculiar 
customs  and  their  unyielding  exclusiveness,  was  already  the 
most  despised  in  the  world.  His  band  of  followers  was  utterly 
untrained,  unequipped  and  unsupported.  Opposed  to  him 
were  the  trained  armies  of  a  powerful  state,  reinforced  by 
Greek  mercenaries  with  bronze  armor  and  the  best  weapons 
made,  led  by  generals  who  had  acquired  skill  in  world-wide 
campaigns.  On  every  field  the  Syrians  outnumbered  the 
Jews  six  to  one.  In  the  enemy's  ranks  also  were  renegade 
Jews  who  knew  the  land  with  all  its  intricacies  and  who  cor- 
dially hated  the  bigoted  and  short-sighted  defenders  of  the 
law.  Against  them  Judas  could  only  oppose  a  desperate 
courage,  a  band  of  loyal  and  rugged  followers,  a  superior 
knowledge  of  the  wilderness  and  the  mountain  strongholds  of 
Judea,  belief  in  his  own  ability  to  inspire,  plan  and  execute, 
and  an  undying  faith  in  God.  With  these  he  would  do  the 
impossible. 

212.  The  Four  Victories.  The  king  of  Syria  did  not  pro- 
pose to  be  thwarted  by  a  band  of  guerillas.  He  sent  his 
general  Apollonius   with  an  army  to  annihilate  it.     Judas 


314  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

and  his  ragged  handful  met  the  army  near  Samaria  and  de- 
feated it.  The  bodies  of  the  slain  furnished  him  with  clothes 
and  weapons.  A  larger  army  was  at  once  sent  down  under 
General  Seron.  Advancing  along  the  old  road  across  Galilee 
and  the  plain  of  Sharon  he  took  the  first  valley  that  led  to 
Jerusalem — the  valley  of  the  Beth-horons.  This  was  a 
fatal  mistake.  Within  two  miles  the  trail  ascends  1,500 
feet,  and  at  points  it  is  a  mere  crevice  between  rocks.  At 
one  of  these  Judas  chose  his  ground  and,  like  Joshua  of  old 
on  the  happy  day  when  the  sun  and  moon  stood  still  over 
this  spot  (Sec.  36),  utterly  routed  his  enemy. 

Judas  now  had  a  name  among  the  nations.  Seeing  that  he 
was  a  formidable  antagonist,  Antiochus  next  launched  against 
him  half  his  entire  military  strength,  an  army  of  50,000 
men,  under  three  of  his  most  accomplished  generals.  Avoid- 
ing the  trap  that  caught  Seron,  they  took  the  broader  pass 
to  the  south,  the  Wadi  Ali,  up  which  the  modern  carriage- 
road  winds  to  Jerusalem.  Near  the  top  of  the  range  where 
the  valley  broadens  a  bit  at  Emmaus  they  pitched.  Judas 
pitched  against  them  on  the  heights  of  Mizpah  (the  watch- 
tower),  famous  in  Hebrew  story  and  full  of  inspirations  for  a 
patriot.  So  confident  of  victory  were  the  Syrians  that  General 
Nicanor  had  brought  with  him  a  host  of  merchants  to  buy 
the  Jewish  slaves  whom  he  expected  to  get,  and  to  sell  them 
abroad.  Even  the  price  of  these  uncaught  slaves  was  posted 
in  neighboring  cities.  As  on  a  former  occasion,  the  attack 
was  made  on  the  Sabbath.  But  Judas  flung  scruples  to  the 
winds,  made  a  glorious  speech  to  his  soldiers  full  of  patriotism 
and  religion;  like  Gideon  he  sent  home  all  those  who  were 
faint-hearted,  and  with  his  intrepid  6,000  he  launched  his 
attack.  While  one  of  the  Syrian  generals  tried  to  turn  his 
flank,  he  slipped  away  through  a  parallel  valley  in  the  op- 
posite direction  and  at  dawn  struck  the  unsuspecting  camp 
of  the  invader  like  a  thunderbolt.  The  Syrians  broke  and 
ran  and  the  Syrian  merchants  who  had  come  down  with  such 
golden  hopes  fled  home  empty-handed. 


THE   FOUR   VICTORIES  315 

Chagrined  beyond  measure  at  the  defeat  of  his  generals, 
Lysias  himself,  the  regent  of  the  kingdom,  now  took  the 
field  with  5,000  cavalry  and  60,000  infantry.  This  time  he 
essayed  a  still  more  southern  pass,  the  vale  of  Elah,  haunted 
by  memories  of  David  and  Goliath.  Here  they  penetrated 
to  the  top  of  the  range  a  little  north  of  Hebron,  where  they 
had  as  a  rear  protection  the  Idumeans  (descendants  of  the 
Edomites),  who  in  the  restoration  period  had  driven  the 
Jews  from  this  part  of  their  inheritance  (Sec.  159).  At  a 
place  called  Bethsura,  Judas  and  his  10,000  met  him,  and 
again  the  "contemptible  little  army"  won.  The  Syrian 
withdrew. 

213.  The  Temple  Restored.  While  Lysias  was  refitting 
his  shattered  battalions  at  Antioch,  Judas  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  Jerusalem.  There  was  a  garrison  of  Syrians  and 
backslidden  Jews  in  the  Akra,  or  citadel,  that  overshadowed 
the  temple  from  the  south;  but  setting  aside  a  portion  of 
his  troops  to  keep  them  harmless,  he  led  the  rest  of  his 
veterans  into  the  sacred  temple  enclosure.  Their  first  act 
was  to  tear  their  garments  and  mourn  for  the  desolation 
that  met  their  eyes,  for  the  dismantled  house,  the  over- 
thrown altar,  the  rubbish  and  filth,  the  thorns  and  weeds, 
and  the  defilement  of  heathen  sacrifice.  Then  with  a  pious 
zeal  they  went  to  work.  All  was  repaired  and  cleansed,  a 
new  altar  w'as  built,  gates,  doors,  courts,  chambers  were  re- 
newed, new  vessels  were  furnished,  and  on  December  25, 
165  B.C.,  three  years  after  the  abomination  of  desolation 
had  been  set  up,  the  temple  was  once  more  dedicated  to  the 
service  of  the  God  of  Israel.  This  memorable  date  became 
a  national  holiday  ever  after,  known  in  Christ's  time  as  the 
Feast  of  Dedication  (John  1022),  but  in  ours  as  the  Feast  of 
Lights. 

214.  The  Hammerer's  Further  Blows.  Antiochus  Epipb- 
anes  died  in  163  B.C.  while  hastening  from  Persia  to  punish 
Judas  personally.  Hence  there  was  a  brief  breathing  space. 
Judas  seized  the  opportunity  to  gain  elbow  room  for  further 


316  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

fights.  First  he  struck  at  the  Idumeans,  hereditary  foes  on 
the  south,  and  won  a  signal  victory.  Next  he  turned  to  the 
Ammonites  east  of  Jordan  who  had  oppressed  the  Jews 
resident  there.  In  this  campaign  he  took  Bosra  on  the  edge 
of  the  desert  and  other  towns  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Yar- 
muk  River  and  in  the  Hauran  as  far  as  Damascus.  The  de- 
cisive battle  with  the  Ammonites  was  fought  near  Edrei. 
Gathering  up  much  spoil  and  as  many  Jews  of  the  disper- 
sion as  he  could  find  here  and  in  Galilee,  the  victorious 
Judas  returned  to  Jerusalem.  He  then  defeated  the  Idu- 
means, capturing  Hebron,  and  overran  the  Philistine  plain 
as  far  as  Ashdod.  In  an  incredibly  short  time  this  peasant 
warrior  had  won  more  victories  against  greater  odds  than 
any  other  leader  in  Hebrew  history.  David  himself  con- 
trolled hardly  more  territory.  While  the  results  of  these 
conquests  were  short-lived,  they  made  secure  the  fame  and 
fear  of  Judas,  they  rescued  thousands  of  Jews  from  heathen 
lands,  and  they  laid  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom  that  was 
soon  to  rise. 

215.  Psalms  of  Victory.  This  glorious  deliverance  from 
the  jaws  of  death  was  the  signal  for  many  a  paean  of  praise. 
Some  of  these  undoubtedly  appear  in  the  Psalter: 

"Jehovah  saith  to  my  lord,  'Sit  thou  at  my  right  hand, 
Until  I  make  thine  enemies  thy  footstool.'  " — Psalm  110. 

"Not  to  us,  O  Jehovah,  not  to  us, 
But  to  thy  name  give  glory." — Psalm  115. 

"O  give  thanks  unto  Jehovah;  for  he  is  good; 
For  his  lovingkindness  endureth  forever." — Psalm  118. 

The  hope  of  a  restored  kingdom  under  the  Messiah  again 
blazed  forth  for  the  first  time  since  Zerubbabel's  day  (Sec. 
174),  and  apparently  inspired  the  rhapsody  found  in  Zech- 
ariah  99"10: 


PSALMS  OF   VICTORY  317 

"Rejoice  greatly,  O  daughter  of  Zion;  shout,  O  daughter 
of  Jerusalem;  behold  thy  king  cometh  unto  thee;  he  is  just, 
and  having  salvation;  lowly,  and  riding  upon  an  ass,  even 
upon  a  colt,  the  foal  of  an  ass.  And  I  will  cut  off  the  chariot 
from  Ephraim,  and  the  horse  from  Jerusalem;  and  the  bat- 
tle bow  shall  be  cut  off;  and  he  shall  speak  peace  unto  the 
nations:  and  his  dominion  shall  be  from  sea  to  sea,  and  from 
the  river  Euphrates  to  the  ends  of  the  earth." 


XXIX 

THE  HEROIC  AGE  AND  THE  UNHEROIC 

216.  The  Attainment  of  Religious  Freedom.  While  the 
Syrian  princes  and  notables  were  quarrelling  over  who  should 
be  the  next  king  of  a  dying  realm,  Judas  thought  it  a  good 
chance  to  capture  the  citadel  at  Jerusalem.  Some  of  the 
garrison  escaped  through  his  net  and  implored  Antioch  to 
help  them.  Lysias,  having  at  length  gotten  a  young  prince 
crowned  as  Antiochus  Eupater,  and  himself  made  prime 
minister,  gathered  a  huge  army  and  himself  accompanied  the 
young  king  into  Judea.  They  had  100,000  infantry,  20,000 
cavalry  and  32  elephants  of  war  armed  like  tanks  and 
carrying  a  squad  of  soldiers  in  their  conning-tower.  They 
again  chose  the  southern  pass  of  Elah  and  met  Judas  with 
his  10,000  at  Beth  Zacharias,  near  Bethsura.  The  battle 
is  memorable  not  only  for  the  terrific  odds  against  Judas 
but  for  the  feat  of  Judas'  brother  Eleazar.  He  fought  his 
way  up  to  the  tallest  elephant,  supposing  that  it  carried  the 
king,  got  beneath  it  and  thrust  his  spear  into  its  heart. 
The  hero  was  crushed  by  the  elephant's  fall.  The  odds 
however  were  too  great.  Judas  suffered  his  first  defeat  and 
had  to  withdraw.  But  while  Lysias  was  besieging  Jerusalem 
with  the  hope  of  ending  the  struggle  forever,  perilous  news 
from  home  compelled  him  to  return  to  Antioch  with  his  army. 
He  therefore  made  a  hurried  peace  compact  by  which  the 
Jews  were  guaranteed  religious  freedom,  though  still  polit- 
ically subject  to  Syria.  This  pact  marked  a  real  and  a  glori- 
ous victory  for  the  Jews  and  closed  the  first  chapter  of  the 
history  of  the  Maccabean  struggle.  The  Jewish  religion  was 
saved;    never  again  was  there  any  question  about  the  free- 

318 


ATTAINMENT  OF   RELIGIOUS   FREEDOM      319 

dom  of  the  Jewish  faith.    From  this  time  on  the  struggle  was 
for  political  independence. 

217.  The  Death  of  Judas.  The  withdrawal  of  the  Syrian 
army  left  the  two  old  parties,  the  Hellenizers  and  the  pious, 
just  about  where  they  had  been  before.  The  struggle  for 
control  began  again,  especially  the  struggle  for  the  high- 
priesthood.  The  Syrian  king  had  appointed  a  certain  Al- 
cimus,  a  Hellenizer,  as  high  priest;  but  the  people  of  Jeru- 
salem refused  to  take  him  and  thrust  him  out  of  the  city. 
When  the  Syrians  tried  to  put  him  back  by  force,  Judas 
took  arms  to  defend  the  popular  cause,  met  the  new  army 
on  the  old  field  of  Beth-horon  and  again  won.  But  the 
Syrians  within  two  months  sent  another  force  under  an- 
other leader.  Judas  was  forsaken  by  most  of  his  war-weary 
band,  was  defeated  and  killed,  161  B.C. 

Great  was  the  mourning  throughout  Palestine,  for  Judas 
had  been  both  chariots  and  horsemen  to  a  lost  cause.  His- 
tory has  passed  on  him  the  judgment  that  he  possessed 
courage,  energy,  unflinching  determination,  a  tender  regard 
for  the  welfare  of  his  men,  the  power  to  inspire  enthusiasm, 
and  military  skill  that  amounted  to  genius.  He  was  the 
savior  of  the  Jewish  faith  and  the  Jewish  race,  the  last  and 
one  of  the  greatest  of  that  line  of  saviors  that  included 
Deborah  and  Elijah,  Isaiah  and  Nehemiah.  But  for  his 
valor  and  devotion  Judah  would  have  in  his  day  met  the 
fate  that  the  prophets  had  so  barely  helped  her  to  escape 
on  the  plains  of  Babylonia  and  that  had  actually  over- 
whelmed godless  Israel.  God  had  surely  been  keeping  watch 
within  the  shadow. 

218.  Jonathan's  Struggles.  Emboldened  by  the  loss  of 
their  great  enemy  Judas,  the  Hellenizers  began  a  fearful 
persecution.  But  Judas'  brother  Jonathan  took  the  popular 
side  and  after  an  almost  complete  failure  was  able  to  win  the 
political  and  religious  leadership  of  Judea  by  playing  against 
one  another  the  two  rival  claimants  for  the  Syrian  throne. 
He  even  added  part  of  Samaria  to  his  lands.    Then  Jonathan 


320  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

bought  freedom  from  taxation  by  the  payment  of  three 
hundred  talents.  In  this  rather  inglorious  fashion  a  kind  of 
political  independence  was  secured.  Jonathan  was  mur- 
dered soon  after  by  a  Syrian  general  who  hoped  to  be  ap- 
pointed ruler  in  his  stead.  But  this  crisis  brought  to  the 
front  the  last  and  the  wisest  of  the  sons  of  Mattathias, 
Simon,  who  had  been  in  all  the  ups  and  downs  of  the  long 
struggle  a  strong  helper  and  a  counsellor.  Before  his  enemy 
could  act,  Simon  had  gathered  the  power  into  his  own 
hands. 

219.  Political  Independence  at  Last.  Again  the  weakness 
of  the  Syrian  throne  proved  to  be  Judah's  opportunity. 
The  new  king,  Demetrius  II,  needed  Simon's  support.  To 
gain  it  he  broke  the  last  bond  that  held  Judea  to  Syria. 
Simon  was  recognized  as  high  priest,  all  the  covenants  made 
with  Jonathan  were  confirmed,  and  the  payment  of  tribute 
was  stopped  forever.  This  pact  marks  a  new  era  in  Jewish 
history.  The  year  143  B.C.  is  the  year  1  of  Jewish  inde- 
pendence. 

Now  began  an  era  of  prosperity  the  like  of  which  the  Jews 
had  never  known  before.  The  Jews  "tilled  their  land  in 
peace,  and  the  land  gave  her  increase,  and  the  trees  of  the 
plain  their  fruit.  The  old  men  sat  in  the  streets,  they 
talked  together  of  the  common  good,  and  the  young  men 
put  on  glorious  and  fine  apparel.  Simon  provided  food  for 
the  cities  and  furnished  them  with  the  means  of  fortifica- 
tion— and  he  strengthened  all  the  distressed  of  his  people, 
he  was  full  of  zeal  for  the  law,  and  every  lawless  and  wicked 
person  he  banished.  He  made  the  sanctuary  glorious,  and 
multiplied  the  vessels  of  the  temple"  (I  Mace.  148"15). 

As  a  ruler  Simon  was  both  moderate  and  wise.  He  as- 
sumed the  state  of  a  king  but  did  not  provoke  prejudice  by 
taking  the  title.  For  the  first  time  in  history  Jewish  coins 
were  struck.  We  still  possess  shekels  having  on  one  side  a 
cup  and  the  words  "shekel  of  Israel"  and  on  the  other  a 
device  interpreted  as  Aaron's  rod  with  the  words,  "  Jerusalem 


POLITICAL  INDEPENDENCE 


321 


Fig.  142— SILVER  SHEKEL  OP  SIMON 
MACCABEUS 

Obverse  :  A  cup,  with  inscription  in  early 
Hebrew  letters,  "Shekel  of  Israel"; 
above  the  cup,  "Year  Three."  Re- 
verse :  Triple  lily,  or  Aaron's  rod  that 
budded,  and  the  inscription  "Jerusa- 
lem the  Holy." 


the  Holy."  Simon  commanded  the  full  confidence  and  love 
of  his  people.  In  a  solemn  assembly  convened  in  141  B.C. 
he  was  confirmed  in  the  double  post  of  governor  and  high 
priest,  both  offices  being  made  hereditary  in  his  family. 
From  this  assembly  therefore  dates  the  founding  of  the 
dynasty  of  the  Hasmo- 
neans — so  called  because 
the  family  name  of  Si- 
mon's father  Mattathias 
was  Hasmon. 

220.  Simon's  Untimely 
Death.  Simon  owed  his 
death  to  the  unscrupulous 
ambition  of  his  son-in- 
law.  This  rascal  named 
Ptolemy  coveted  for  him- 
self the  dignity  and  power 
that  Simon  possessed,  and 
knowing  full  well  that  Si- 
mon's sons  would  naturally  inherit  these  things,  he  conceived 
a  plot  to  destroy  them  all.  While  they  were  on  a  tour  of  in- 
spection among  the  cities  of  Judea,  Ptolemy  invited  them  to 
a  banquet  in  his  castle  near  Jericho,  and  having  plied  them 
well  with  wine,  set  assassins  upon  them.  But  Ptolemy  was 
balked  in  seizing  the  power  by  Simon's  third  son,  John  Hyr- 
canus,  who  won  the  support  of  the  people  of  Jerusalem  be- 
fore Ptolemy  had  time  to  do  it.  John  therefore  succeeded 
to  his  father's  titles. 

221.  New  Ambitions.  A  new  king  of  Syria,  Antiochus 
Sidetes,  now  tried  to  re-establish  a  claim  on  Palestine;  but 
he  soon  died.  Left  free  to  do  as  he  pleased,  John  began 
ambitious  projects  for  conquest.  With  the  aid  of  mercen- 
aries he  conquered  additional  east-Jordan  territory,  took 
Shechem  and  southern  Samaria,  and  thereupon  destroyed 
the  Samaritan  temple  on  the  top  of  Mount  Gerizim.  Turn- 
ing south,  he  captured  the  chief  cities  of  the  Idumeans,  plac- 


322  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

ing  over  them  as  governor  one  Antipater,  himself  an  Idu- 
mean.  Next  he  reduced  the  strong  city  of  Samaria,*  since 
Alexander's  time  a  Greek  stronghold;  and  last  of  all,  took 
Scythopolis,  ancient  Bethshean,  at  the  mouth  of  the  valley  of 
Jezreel.  All  of  this  does  not  look  like  the  conduct  of  a  high 
priest.  The  last  trace  of  the  religious  zeal  that  had  so  fired 
the  early  Maccabean  house  had  vanished,  and  in  its  place 
had  come  the  purely  worldly  desire  to  conquer.  This  course 
could  not  fail  to  arouse  protest  on  the  part  of  those  who  had 
religion  at  heart. 

222.  Pharisees  and  Sadducees.  Back  in  Jonathan's  day 
there  had  arisen  a  party  of  separatists  who  had  objected  to 
policies  of  state  that  did  not  advance  the  cause  of  religion. 
Now  these  separatists,  or  Pharisees  as  they  are  henceforth 
called,  stepped  openly  into  the  light  as  opponents  of  John 
and  his  worldly  schemes.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who 
favored  the  ruling  house  and  its  policy  were  known  as  Sad- 
ducees. It  is  evident  that  these  parties,  were  the  descen- 
dants of  the  old  pious  and  worldly  groups  of  the  pre-Mac- 
cabean  days,  only  their  aims  were  changed.  Now  it  was  a 
question  of  whether  the  state  should  be  primarily  religious 
or  secular. 

Henceforth  the  Pharisees  played  a  leading  part  in  Jewish 
life.  In  politics  they  were  conservative,  believing  that  the 
policy  of  expansion  and  of  alliance  with  heathen  nations  was 
really  disloyalty  to  Jehovah.  In  religion  they  were  pro- 
gressives, holding  that  the  ancient  sacred  law  must  be  in- 
terpreted and  applied  to  new  questions  as  they  arise  in 
every-day  life,  and  that  the  new  interpretations  and  applica- 
tions are  of  equal  authority  with  the  law  itself.  This  gave 
rise  to  no  end  of  regulations,  most  of  them  petty  and  some 
of  them  absurd,  like  those  that  applied  to  the  keeping  of  the 
Sabbath.  A  good  Pharisee  would  not  eat  an  egg  laid  on  the 
Sabbath,  for  example,  because  the  laying  involved  work  on 
the  part  of  the  hen  !  Pharisees  set  before  themselves  the 
keeping  of  every  last  jot  and  tittle  of  the  law  and  the  tra- 


PHARISEES   AND   SADDUCEES 


323 


dition.  They  believed  in  immortality,  the  resurrection  of 
the  body  and  the  coming  of  the  Messiah;  and  since  these 
beliefs  were  shared  by  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  the 
Pharisees  became  the  natural  leaders  of  the  nation.     They 


Fig.    143— A    PHARISEE    AT    PRAYER 

The  scarf  worn  over  the  head  is  part  of  the  ceremonial  of  reading  the  Law; 
likewise  the  phylactery  bound  on  the  forehead  (see  also  Fig.  144).  The 
scroll  is  wound  up  by  the  right  hand  as  it  is  unrolled  by  the  left. 


were  the  true  representatives  of  Judaism,  and  their  principles 
are  still  the  foundation  of  the  orthodox  Jewish  faith. 

The  Sadducees  were  few  in  number  compared  with  their 
rivals.  They  represented  both  the  old  priestly  aristocracy 
and  the  new  nobility  that  rallied  around  the  Maccabean 
leaders.  They  depended  for  their  authority  not  on  popular 
support  but  on  wealth,  prestige  and  the  favor  of  the  ruling 
house.      They   were    really   a   political   and   not    a   religious 


324 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


party.  They  favored  any  policy  that  would  further  their 
own  interests,  and  they  had  no  sympathy  with  the  scruples 
and   endless   discussions   of   doctrine   that   so   occupied   the 

Pharisees.  They  were 
selfish,  often  unscrupu- 
lous. They  could  pro- 
duce, in  the  time  of 
Christ,  such  characters 
as  Annas  and  Caiaphas 
whose  shameless  grasping 
for  wealth  and  power  be- 
came a  byword. 

223.  The  Wreckers  of 
the  Jewish  Democracy. 
John  died  just  as  the  con- 
test between  Pharisees 
and  Sadducees  was  be- 
coming acute.  Aristo- 
bulus  his  son,  who  fol- 
lowed him,  was  a  brute 
whose  inglorious  reign 
lasted  only  a  year.  His 
only  title  to  fame  lies 
in  his  conquest  of  Gali- 
lee, which  here  colonized 
with  Jews  and  so  made 
it  possible  for  Jesus  to 
come  out  of  Nazareth. 
His  title  to  ignominy  lies 
in  his  wholesale  murder 
of  the  members  of  his 
own  family. 
With  the  accession  of  Alexander,  another  son  of  John 
Hyrcanus,  we  reach  the  low-water  mark  of  the  Hasmonean 
house,  for  he  stopped  at  no  act  of  perfidy  or  cruelty.     His 


Fig.    144— A    PHYLACTERY 

little  box  of  leather,  about  two  inches 
square,  fastened  to  a  leather  band,  by 
which  it  was  bound  on  the  forehead  be- 
tween the  eyes.  It  has  four  compart- 
ments, in  each  of  which  is  a  piece  of 
parchment  bearing  one  of  these  four 
verses  from  the  Law:  Ex.  139,  1316, 
Deut.  68,  111S.  Phylacteries  began  to 
be  worn  in  the  second  century  b.c.  The 
Talmud  directed  every  male  Jew  to 
wear  one  after  his  thirteenth  year  at 
morning  prayers  on  Sabbaths  and  fes- 
tivals. Their  use  grew  out  of  a  literal 
interpretation  of  the  passages  men- 
tioned above,  and  became  a  mark  of 
great  piety.  Jesus  condemned  the 
spirit  that  made  a  show  of  them  (Matt. 
23s).     Compare  also  Fig.  143. 


THE   WRECKERS  OF   DEMOCRACY  325 

reign  accomplished  three  things,  all  of  them  unfortunate: 
he  drove  the  finest  of  the  Jews  into  open  hostility  to  the 
Hasmonean  family,  losing  8,000  by  voluntary  exile  and 
50,000  by  civil  war;  he  fanned  the  rivalry  between  Pharisees 
and  Sadducees  into  a  murderous  hatred;  and  he  depleted  the 
treasury  by  fruitless  wars  of  conquest.  He  was  followed  at 
his  death  by  his  wife  Alexandra,  whose  folly  was  the  undoing 
of  her  house.  In  the  first  place,  she  made  her  oldest  son 
Hyrcanus  high  priest  and  gave  her  younger  and  more  ener- 
getic son  Aristobulus  nothing  to  do — which  was  a  fatal  mis- 
take. In  the  second  place,  she  renounced  the  support  of  the 
Sadducees  and  favored  the  Pharisees,  the  party  of  the  peo- 
ple. Now  came  in  the  golden  age  of  the  Pharisees;  their 
exiles  returned  and  they  at  last  held  the  balance  of  power. 
But  bent  on  humiliating  their  rivals,  they  began  a  series  of 
persecutions  and  judicial  murders  that  finally  drove  the 
Sadducees  out  of  Jerusalem.  Alexandra's  son  Aristobulus 
now  saw  his  chance.  Taking  advantage  of  his  mother's 
sickness — she  was  now  seventy-three — he  attached  himself 
to  the  ostracized  Sadducees,  raised  an  army,  and  while  his 
mother  was  dying  he  tried  to  get  the  throne. 

224.  The  Fatal  Struggle  Between  Brothers.  Though  the 
dying  queen  had  willed  everything  to  Hyrcanus,  in  the  first 
encounter  with  his  brother  he  lost  everything  except  his  life. 
He  doubtless  would  have  been  content  to  remain  in  peace 
and  privacy,  but  he  was  sought  out  by  an  ambitious  and 
wonderfully  able  man  named  Antipater,  who  saw  that  he 
could  use  so  weak  a  prince  to  advance  his  own  ends.  This 
Antipater  was  that  Idumean  who  had  been  made  governor 
of  Idumea  by  Hyrcanus'  father  (Sec.  221).  Antipater  per- 
suaded Hyrcanus  to  flee  to  Petra,  the  rock-city  of  the  Xa- 
batean  Arabs,  whose  king  Aretas  promised  to  put  him  back 
on  the  throne  if  Hyrcanus  would  restore  to  him  twelve  cities 
that  his  father  had  captured.  Hyrcanus  agreed,  returned 
with  the  backing  of  50,000  Arabs  and  defeated  Aristobulus, 


326 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


who  fled  to  the  temple  and  there  defended  himself.  At  this 
critical  juncture  the  Roman  eagles  descended  and  Jewish  in- 
dependence became  a  memory  of  the  past. 


Fig.  145 — COPPER  HALF-SHEKEL  OF   SIMON  MACCABEUS 

The  inscription  reads:  (left)  "Fourth  year:  One  Half"  (shekel);  (right)  "  Of  the 
Freedom  (independence)  of  Zion."  The  old  Hebrew  forms  of  letters  wer.v 
used  on  the  Maccabean  coins,  perhaps  for  patriotic  reasons. 


XXX 

THE  DESCENT  OF  THE  ROMAN  EAGLES 

225.  The  Shadow  of  Rome.  In  the  course  of  our  history 
we  have  seen  the  sceptre  of  world-empire  pass  in  succession 
from  Babylon  to  Assyria,  back  to  Babylon,  then  to  Persia 
and  to  Greece.  The  centre  of  power  still  was  moving  west- 
ward, and  while  the  fragments  of  Alexander's  domain  were 
wearing  themselves  out  in  fruitless  struggles,  Rome  was 
sharpening  her  sword  for  conquest.  By  a  wonderful  series 
of  successes  and  accidents  Rome  had  absorbed  Italy,  then 
northern  Africa,  then  Greece,  and  by  the  first  quarter  of 
the  first  century  before  Christ  she  was  battling  for  the  con- 
trol of  Asia  Minor  and  Mesopotamia  with  Mithridates, 
king  of  Pontus,  and  Tigranes  of  Armenia  who  was  now  in 
virtual  control  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Seleucids. 
These  kings  were  finally  conquered  in  65  B.C.  by  the  Roman 
general  Pompey,  who  became  in  the  East  a  veritable  king 
of  kings,  immensely  rich  and  full  of  ambition  for  himself 
and  Rome.  Naturally  he  turned  lustful  eyes  on  Syria  and 
Palestine  not  only  for  the  spoils  they  would  yield  but  be- 
cause he  needed  them  as  a  base  of  operations  against  the 
Parthians  still  farther  to  the  east.  He  therefore  sent  his 
general  Scaurus  southward  and  in  64  B.C." pacified"  Syria  as 
far  as  Phoenicia  and  Damascus.  Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus 
both  hit  upon  the  happy  idea  of  asking  Roman  aid  in  their 
quarrel,  and  offered  the  same  persuasion — four  hundred 
talents  each.  Scaurus  took  a  trip  to  Jerusalem  to  look  the 
ground  over,  decided  that  he  would  back  Aristobulus,  and 
ordered  Hyrcanus,  Antipater  and  Aretas  to  drop  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem.  These  left  at  once,  for  cause.  When  Pompey 
himself  reached  Damascus  the  grateful  Aristobulus  sent  him 

327 


328  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

a  present  of  a  golden  vine  worth  five  hundred  talents,  which 
Pompey  forwarded  to  Rome  to  be  put  in  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Capitolinus. 

226.  Pompey  the  Dictator.  But  when  Pompey  returned  to 
Damascus  the  following  year  (63)  he  was  met  by  envoys  of 
Hyrcanus,  Aristobulus,  and  also  of  the  Jewish  people,  each 
with  an  axe  to  grind.  The  words  of  the  last-named  group 
sounded  pleasantly  in  bis  ears,  for  they  had  been  sent  by  the 
peace-at-any-price  Pharisees  to  ask  that  the  Jewish  kingship 
be  abolished  altogether,  so  that  under  the  protection  of  Ro- 
man law  they  might  give  their  exclusive  attention  to  religion. 
Pompey  now  decided  to  take  a  trip  to  Jerusalem  to  inspect 
conditions  personally;  whereat  King  Aristobulus  said  in- 
discreet things  about  obligations  for  gifts  received  and  Pom- 
pey was  sensitive  enough  to  arrest  him  on  the  spot.  As 
Pompey  approached  the  holy  city  the  party  that  favored 
Hyrcanus  opened  the  gates  to  him;  but  the  party  of  Aristo- 
bulus shut  themselves  in  the  temple  and  citadel,  and  defied 
him.  The  fortifications  of  the  citadel  were  strong  enough  to 
bold  back  the  Roman  for  three  months.  But  by  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  Pharisaic  scruples  about  fighting  on  the  Sab- 
bath, Pompey  made  a  breach  and  began  a  massacre  in  which 
12,000  Jews  were  slain,  including  many  priests  at  the  altar. 
Through  such  a  sea  of  blood  Rome  made  her  entry  into  the 
sacred  city.  Henceforth  she  maintained  her  grasp  on  it  for 
seven  centuries,  63  B.C.  to  635  a.d. 

Pompey  restored  Hyrcanus  to  his  high-piiesthood  and  for 
civil  power  gave  him  the  newly  manufactured  title  of 
ethnarch.  But  the  cities  conquered  from  Syria  by  the  Has- 
moneans  were  all  taken  away;  and  Hyrcanus'  territory  was 
cut  down  to  Judea  only,  and  made  subject  to  the  Roman 
governor  of  Syria.  The  walls  of  Jerusalem  were  demolished, 
a  Roman  garrison  was  stationed  in  the  citadel,  and  tribute 
was  imposed.  It  was  now  that  the  Greek  cities,  mostly 
east  of  Jordan,  were  made  locally  free  and  were  organized 
into  a  league  known  as  the  Decapolis. 


POMPEY  THE   DICTATOR  329 

Pompey  was  curious  to  enter  the  temple;  he  even  lifted 
the  veil  and  entered  the  holy  of  holies.  Awed  by  the  strange 
worship  in  which  no  image  of  the  god  was  used,  by  the  won- 
derful ritual  and  the  costly  incense,  he  withdrew  without 
touching  the  immense  treasure  in  the  temple  vaults — an 
astonishing  thing  for  Pompey.  The  Pharisees,  however, 
never  forgot  the  profanation  of  their  shrine,  and  when  the 
chance  came  later  they  sided  against  Pompey  with  Julius 
Caesar.  Pompey  now  returned  to  Rome,  taking  as  captives 
to  grace  his  triumphal  procession  Aristobulus,  his  two  sons 
Antigonus  and  Alexander,  his  two  daughters,  and  multi- 
tudes of  Jews.  On  the  voyage  Alexander  escaped  and  re- 
turned to  make  mischief  in  Judea.  Aristobulus  and  Antig- 
onus escaped  later  from  Rome  and  did  the  same  thing. 
All  the  rest  were  in  due  time  given  freedom,  and  they  formed 
the  Jewish  colony  in  Rome  that  figures  afterward  in  the 
work  and  writings  of  Paul  and  Peter. 

227.  Fighting  the  Inevitable.  The  defeated  party  had 
no  intention  of  giving  up  the  struggle.  First,  the  escaped 
Alexander  collected  and  led  a  force  against  Jerusalem. 
Hyrcanus  and  his  patron  Antipater  were  overthrown.  They 
then  appealed  for  help  to  the  Roman  governor  of  Syria  and 
managed  to  regain  their  grip  (57  B.C.).  Aristobulus  and  his 
son  now  escaped  from  Rome  (56  B.C.)  and  tried  their  luck 
with  a  revolt,  but  they  were  captured  and  sent  back.  In 
55  B.C.  Alexander  made  a  second  attempt  without  success. 
In  54,  Crassus  was  the  Roman  general  in  charge  of  the 
East.  Needing  money  for  his  Parthian  expedition,  he  came 
to  Jerusalem  and  stripped  the  temple  treasury  of  the  hoard 
that  Pompey  had  spared  (812,500,000).  As  soon  as  he  was 
defeated  by  the  Parthians,  the  Jews  revolted;  but  his  suc- 
cessor Cassius  took  swift  vengeance  on  them  by  selling  30,000 
of  the  rebels  into  slavery.  When  the  rupture  came  between 
Caesar  and  Pompey,  who  were  struggling  for  the  mastery  of 
the  world,  Caesar  released  Aristobulus  and  gave  him  two 
legions  with  which  to  start  a  revolt  in  Judea  and  so  harass 


330  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

his  enemy.  But  friends  of  Pompey  poisoned  Aristobulus, 
and  others  killed  Alexander  about  the  same  time  (49  B.C.). 
Rome  was  still  in  the  saddle,  whatever  became  of  her  gen- 
erals. 

228.  The  Schemes  of  Antipater.  The  wise  Idumean 
grand  vizier  of  Hyrcanus  saw  that  no  one  could  rule  in  Judea 
without  the  help  of  Rome.  He  therefore  ingratiated  him- 
self with  whatever  Roman  was  on  top  at  the  moment. 
When  Pompey  was  defeated  at  Pharsalia  in  48  B.C.  and 
Caesar,  following  him  to  Egypt,  was  in  a  serious  plight  at 
Alexandria,  Antipater  sent  a  force  to  help  him  out.  The 
Idumean  mouse  helped  the  Roman  lion.  The  lion  never 
forgot  it.  Caesar  raised  Antipater  to  the  rank  of  Roman 
citizen  and  made  him  procurator  of  Judea,  Samaria,  and 
Galilee  under  Hyrcanus,  while  he  confirmed  Hyrcanus  as 
high  priest  and  made  him  hereditary  ethnarch  and  a  Roman 
senator.  Caesar  also  granted  him  the  right  to  refortify 
Jerusalem  and  gave  the  Jews  all  over  the  world  substantial 
privileges  (47  B.C.).  With  an  eye  to  the  future,  Antipater 
made  his  son  Phasael  governor  of  Jerusalem,  and  sent  his 
son  Herod,  then  twenty-five  years  old,  to  restore  order  in 
Galilee  where  desperadoes,  robbers  and  religious  zealots  were 
defying  the  authority  of  Rome.  When  Caesar  was  assassi- 
nated in  44  B.C.,  Antipater  trimmed  his  sails  to  go  over  to 
Brutus  and  Cassius,  the  leaders  of  the  conspiracy;  but  Anti- 
pater died  before  the  leadership  of  the  East  was  settled, 
leaving  his  sons  Phasael  and  Herod  to  manage  king  Hyrcanus 
and  the  Romans  as  best  they  could. 

229.  Herod  the  Tight-Rope  Walker.  The  assassins  of 
Csesar  did  not  gather  up  the  Roman  world  as  Antipater 
thought  they  would.  Instead  they  were  beaten  at  Philippi, 
42  B.C.,  by  Mark  Antony  and  Octavius  (afterward  Augustus 
Caesar).  Young  Herod  promptly  patronized  Antony*,  and 
by  bribes  and  his  own  personal  charm  brought  it  about  that 
when  Antony  became  master  of  the  East  he  confirmed  Herod 
and  Phasael  as  tetrarchs  under  the  nominal  rule  of  Hvrcanus. 


HEROD  331 

The  Jews  protested,  but  in  vain.  Antony  now  went  to  Egypt 
to  carry  on  his  long  financial  and  political  flirtation  with 
Cleopatra  that  was  to  end  in  disaster  for  both.  The  Par- 
thians  took  this  opportunity  to  invade  Palestine  (40  B.C.). 
Antigonus,  son  of  Aristobulus  II,  came  again  out  of  his  hid- 
ing and  persuaded  them  to  espouse  his  cause.  Eagerly  wel- 
comed by  the  Jews,  they  captured  Jerusalem  and  with  it 
King  Hyrcanus  and  Phasael  the  governor.  Hyrcanus  they 
deported  to  Babylon  and  so  mutilated  him  that  he  could 
never  again  be  high  priest.  Phasael  committed  suicide. 
Herod  escaped  and  fled  with  his  family  to  the  fortress  of 
Masada,  southeast  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Antigonus  after  all  his 
unsuccessful  attempts  was  now  installed  as  ruler  and  high 
priest,  and  for  three  years  had  the  semblance  of  power.  But 
the  Parthians  soon  returned  to  their  mountain  fastnesses 
east  of  the  Zagros,  leaving  Antigonus  to  look  after  himself. 

230.  Herod's  Sudden  Rise  to  Power.  Herod  now  es- 
caped from  Masada  and  fled  by  way  of  Egypt  to  Rome.  He 
showed  Antony  and  Octavius  that  Antigonus  had  become 
ruler  of  Judea  only  by  aid  of  the  Parthians,  the  Roman  arch- 
enemy. He  urged  them  to  dethrone  Antigonus  and  substitute 
one  Aristobulus,  a  grandson  of  old  Hyrcanus  and  a  brother  of 
his  fiancee  Mariamne.  To  his  surprise,  they  decided  that 
Herod  himself  was  the  proper  candidate  for  the  office  and  had 
the  Senate  confirm  his  appointment  as  king  of  Judea  (39  B.C.). 
The  Jews  hated  Herod.  When  he  landed  to  claim  his  king- 
dom the  leaders  would  not  co-operate.  But  Antony  had 
loaned  Herod  two  legions  of  Roman  soldiers,  more  soldiers 
were  picked  up  in  Galilee,  so  that  when  Herod  appeared  be- 
fore Jerusalem  to  take  his  kingdom  by  force  he  had  100,000 
men  at  his  back.  A  six  months'  siege  followed  and  a  sur- 
render. The  upstart  king  Antigonus  was  sent  to  Antioch, 
where  after  making  of  himself  a  spectacle  of  cowardice  he 
was  beheaded  by  Antony.  Thus  the  house  of  the  Has- 
moneans  ended  ingloriously  in  37  B.C.,  one  hundred  and 
thirtv   vears   after  the  first  victories   of  the   valiant  Judas 


332  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Maccabseus  and  seventy  years  after  the  assumption  of  the 
royal  title  by  Aristobulus  I.  Herod  the  Idumean  was  now 
king  of  the  Jews. 

231.  Jewish  Hopes  and  Fears.  This  period  of  swift 
changes  of  Roman  masters,  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  local  rulers, 
of  invasion  and  plunder  and  massacre,  was  intensely  trying 
to  the  Jewish  people.  The  vast  majority  of  them  naturally 
had  no  interest  in  the  course  of  events  except  in  so  far  as  it 
meant  taxes  or  bloodshed  for  them.  Their  troubles  only 
drove  them  more  strongly  to  religion  and  to  the  longing  for 
relief  offered  by  the  hope  of  a  great  deliverer — the  Messiah. 
This  hope,  born  in  the  period  of  exile,  had  centred  first 
around  Zerubbabel;  then,  suffering  a  long  eclipse,  it  shone 
forth  at  the  time  of  the  early  Maccabees.  Each  time  it  was 
doomed  to  disappointment,  but  the  hope  persisted,  taking  on 
more  fantastic  and  miraculous  shapes  until  by  the  beginning 
of  Herod's  rule  it  had  become  almost  a  passion  in  which  pa- 
triotism and  religion  were  indistinguishably  mingled.  The 
Psalms  of  Solomon,  completed  in  the  early  Roman  period, 
voice  the  ideals  and  longings  of  loyal  Pharisees;  they  lament 
the  desecration  and  bloodshed  wrought  by  Pompey,  and  the 
sins  of  priests  and  rulers;  they  express  belief  in  God's  mercy 
toward  Israel,  his  speedy  gift  of  a  Messiah  to  lead  them  again 
to  freedom,  and  his  reward  of  resurrection  and  immortality  for 
the  faithful.  Thus  did  a  distressed  people  seek  release  from 
the  wretched  present  in  dreams  of  a  sudden  and  miraculous 
deliverance.  Underlying  all  their  Messianic  hopes  was  their 
indestructible  belief  in  justice,  in  democracy,  and  in  the 
right  of  each  man  and  people  to  enjoy  life,  liberty  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness.  They  also  believed — even  though 
Rome  seemed  to  give  the  lie  to  this  belief — that  a  God  of 
justice  ruled  in  the  universe. 


XXXI 

HEROD  OF  THE  IRON  HAND 

232.  The  Personality  of  Herod.  The  Jews  had  occasion 
to  resent  the  coming  of  one  like  Herod  to  rule  over  them. 
They  feared  him  for  his  ability,  for  his  severity,  and  for  his 
unscrupulousness.  As  a  young  man,  with  not  much  more  to 
help  him  than  engaging  manners  and  brilliant  speech,  he  had 
succeeded  in  wining  the  friendship  of  Antony,  the  master  of 
the  East.  When  sent  by  his  father  to  pacify  Galilee,  he 
straightway  showed  consummate  ability  as  a  commander, 
even  capturing  brigands  who  infested  the  caves  in  the  pre- 
cipitous cliffs  of  Arbela,  by  letting  down  soldiers  in  cages 
from  above  and  smoking  out  and  shooting  the  rascals.  His 
punishments  were  meted  out  to  desperado  and  pious  zealot 
alike,  and  with  such  severity  that  the  Sanhedrin  or  national 
council  at  Jerusalem  summoned  him  before  them  to  answer 
the  charge  of  killing  good  Jews.  Herod  appeared  in  full 
armor  with  a  company  of  soldiers  behind  him,  and  the  gray- 
bearded  cowards  dismissed  the  case.  In  politics,  as  we  shall 
see,  he  was  a  trimmer,  his  object  being  to  make  a  safe  port 
for  himself,  whatever  way  the  wind  blew.  Of  respect  for  the 
Jewish  nation  and  its  religion  he  had  not  a  trace.  These 
were  the  reasons  why  the  wise  ones  at  Jerusalem  were  not 
wild  with  joy  over  his  accession. 

233.  His  Early  Cruelties.  The  suspicions  of  the  Jews 
were  confirmed  when  shortly  after  his  accession  Herod  put 
to  death  forty-five  of  the  leaders  of  the  old  aristocracy — 
fully  half  the  Sanhedrin.  His  marriage  with  Mariamne,  a 
princess  of  the  Hasmonean  house,  instead  of  harmonizing 
the  factions,  intensified  them  and  made  his  home  life  a  per- 

333 


334 


THE  HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH 


feet  torment.  Mariamne  was  not  only  beautiful  but  a  little 
too  conscious  of  her  ancient  blood,  and  Herod's  sister  Salome 
— in  fact,  the  whole  Idumean  family — took  violent  offense 


Fig.    146— ROCK    OF    CLESAREA 

This  site  (30  miles  north  of  Jaffa")  was  chosen  for  Herod's  city  because  the  mass 
of  rock  gave  promise  of  sheltering  a  harbor  on  its  northern  site.  Herod 
made  the  harbor  by  building  breakwaters,  consisting  of  stones  50  x  IS  x  9 
feet  in  size,  let  down  into  20  fathoms  of  water.  The  mole  was  200  feet 
wide.     It  took  ten  or  twelve  years  to  build  this  and  the  city. 

Here  Vespasian  was  named  emperor  by  his  soldiers,  and  Titus  celebrated  his 
brother's  birthday  by  setting  2,500  Jews  to  fight  with  beasts  in  the  am- 
phitheatre. 


at  her.  Thinking  to  gratify  the  Jews,  Herod  appointed 
Mariamne's  young  brother  Aristobulus  high  priest,  but  the 
appointment  proved  so  popular  that  within  a  few  months 
after  his  first  official  Passover  Herod  had  him  drowned  in 
the  swimming-pool  of  the  palace  at  Jericho  (35  B.C.).  Mari- 
amne loved  Herod  less  after  that,  and  among  the  sympathizers 


HEROD'S   EARLY   CRUELTIES  335 

there  were  whispers  of  revenge.  Salome's  incessant  lies  and 
goadings  at  last  roused  Herod's  fear  that  Mariamne  was 
plotting.  He  had  her  murdered  at  Samaria  (29  B.C.),  and 
she  was  the  only  person  he  ever  loved.  In  the  reaction  that 
followed,  his  remorse  knew  no  bounds  and  in  fact  nearly  re- 
sulted in  his  death.  But  his  suspicions  of  her  family  con- 
tinued and  the  next  victim  was  Mariamne's  mother  Alex- 
andra. Even  old  and  mutilated  Hyrcanus  was  brought  back 
from  Babylon  and  killed.  Along  with  these  were  sacrificed 
many  others  who  he  thought  were  involved.  By  25  B.C.  he 
had  killed  off  all  possible  claimants  to  the  throne  and  ter- 
rorized all  his  subjects  into  submission. 

234.  His  Political  Shrewdness.  Herod's  political  path 
also  was  a  treacherous  one:  he  had  to  keep  his  balance  and 
his  head  amid  the  whirlwinds  of  Roman  politics.  He  was 
devotedly  attached  to  Antony.  Cleopatra  on  the  other  hand 
hated  him,  and  it  was  a  question  whether  her  hatred  or 
Antony's  friendship  would  win.  When  Antony  fell  out  with 
Octavius,  Herod  vigorously  supported  his  friend  Antony. 
But  when  the  battle  of  Actium  (31  B.C.)  showed  him  that 
Octavius  was  destined  to  be  the  master  of  the  world,  Herod 
went  to  Rhodes  to  meet  the  conqueror,  taking  with  him  his 
best  wits  and  much  gold.  He  argued  that  as  he  had  been  a 
valuable  friend  to  Antony  as  long  as  Antony  deserved 
friendship,  so  he  could  be  a  valuable  friend  to  Antony's 
wiser  conqueror.  Octavius  was  duly  impressed  and  con- 
firmed Herod  on  his  throne.  After  the  conquest  of  Egypt 
he  gave  Herod  also  the  whole  Syrian  coast  from  Egypt  to 
Tyre,  and  added  the  cities  of  Gadara,  Hippos  and  Samaria, 
and  the  territory  northeast  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 

235.  His  Hellenism.  Having  thus  secured  his  throne 
from  dangers  within  and  without,  Herod  settled  down  to  his 
policy  of  Oriental  magnificence.  In  temper  he  was  an  East- 
ern despot,  but  in  culture  he  was  thoroughly  Greek.  Under 
him  Hellenism  came  to  its  own.  His  court  was  full  of  Greek 
parasites.     His  most  trusted  adviser  during  the  latter  half 


336 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


O    indicate*     '.Vcllt 


of  his  life  was  a  rhetori- 
cian of  Damascus  named 
Nicholas  with  whom  he 
read  Greek  literature  and 
talked  of  Greek  philosophy 
and  composed  speeches 
in  the  style  of  Demosthe- 
nes. He  even  endowed 
the  Olympic  games  in 
Greece  and  was  made 
perpetual  president  of 
that  institution.  But  his 
special  passion  was  build- 
ing  Greek  cities  and 
adorning  them  after  the 
classic  style,  and  in  show- 
ering benefits  on  famous 
centres  of  Hellenic  cul- 
ture. Nearly  a  score  of  the 
latter  had  cause  to  thank 
him,  including  Athens, 
Sparta,  and  Rhodes. 
Here  it  was  a  temple  he 
built,  there  a  stoa  or  a 
bath.  In  Antioch  he 
built  a  colonnaded  street 
of  marble;  temples  to  the 
divine  Augustus  went  up 
all  over  Palestine.  In 
Jerusalem  he  built  a 
theatre  and  an  amphitheatre,  besides  remodelling  the  for- 
tress of  John  Hyrcanus  northwest  of  the  temple  and  naming 
it  Antonia  in  memory  of  his  first  Roman  friend.  After  the 
Hellenic  style  he  also  constructed  his  palace  at  Jericho  and 
the  palace  and  park  on  the  high  hill  southeast  of  Bethlehem, 
known  to-day  as  the  Frank  Mountain. 


Fig.    147— PLAN    OF    CLESAREA 

Notice  the  walls  of  two  towns:  the  outer 
circular  wall  of  Herod's  city  three 
miles  long,  and  the  inner  rectangular 
wall  of  the  mediaeval  city  built  by 
the  crusaders.  The  splendor  of 
Herod's  foundation  made  it  the  most 
important  city  of  Palestine.  The 
Roman  procurators  lived  here.  It  was 
the  port  of  entry  for  all  southern 
Palestine  and  Arabia.  St.  Paul  was 
a  prisoner  here  for  two  years  (Sec.  242). 
The  great  hippodrome  had  seats  for 
20,000  spectators. 


HEROD'S   HELLENISM 


337 


His  crowning  works  of  civic  splendor  were  the  cities  of 
Sebaste  and  Csesarea.  The  former  was  the  ancient  Samaria 
which    John    Hyrcanus    had    destroyed    twenty-nine    years 


Fig.    148— HEROD'S    LAW    COURT 

This  imposing  building,  excavated  by  Harvard  University  in  1908,  stands  in 
the  eastern  part  of  Herod  s  city,  just  off  the  forum.  Its  floor  consisted  of 
marble  mosaic.  The  columns  divided  the  building  into  a  central  nave 
and  a  broad  aisle  on  each  side.  You  are  looking  across  the  western  aisle 
and  into  the  nave.  Find  the  semicircular  seats  where  the  judges  sat. 
The  lighter  portions  of  the  columns  show  the  depth  of  the  debris  which  the 
excavators  had  to  remove 


before  and  the  site  of  which  had  been  given  him  by  Octavius. 
Herod  rebuilt  it  magnificently,  erected  a  stadium,  basilica, 
double  street  of  columns  a  mile  long  around  the  crest  of  the 
hill;  on  the  acropolis  he  reared  a  temple  to  the  emperor  and 
in  the  year  when  Octavius  assumed  the  title  "Augustus  " 
dedicated  the  whole  to  him  and  named  it  Sebaste — the 
Greek  for  Augustus.     A  still  more  magnificent  offering  to  his 


338  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

imperial  patron  was  Caesarea,  named  also  for  this  adopted 
son  of  Julius  Caesar.  First  he  built  a  harbor  by  running  a 
breakwater  two  hundred  feet  wide  out  into  the  open  sea — a 
brilliant  engineering  feat  in  those  days.  Then  the  city  rose 
superbly,  its  public  buildings  of  marble  adorned  with  costly 
pillars  from  abroad,  as  the  relics  now  in  the  Piazzetta  in 
Venice  testify.  There  were  the  usual  street  and  agora,  a 
temple,  a  theatre,  an  amphitheatre  and  a  palace.  These 
splendid  monuments  strengthened  the  favor  of  Augustus 
and  got  Herod  a  name. 

236.  His  Judaism.  Though  Herod  despised  the  Jews  and 
hated  their  religion,  as  king  of  the  Jews  he  felt  it  necessary 
to  pay  some  attention  to  his  people's  faith,  at  least  in  their 
chief  city.  He  himself  never  exercised  the  functions  of  high 
priest.  Instead,  he  raised  to  office  various  nobodies  who  did 
what  he  said,  and  removed  them  as  he  pleased.  These  dig- 
nitaries did  not  transgress  the  requirements  of  the  ritual,  and 
therefore  the  Pharisees  endured  them  and  him  with  a  sort  of 
sullen  loyalty.  In  little  things  Herod  always  respected  Jew- 
ish scruples.  His  buildings  in  Jerusalem  and  bis  coins  bore 
no  likeness  of  living  things,  there  were  no  statues  erected  in 
the  holy  city,  his  daughters  were  married  to  none  but  Jews, 
and  he  used  his  influence  with  Augustus  to  protect  the  Jews 
of  the  dispersion  everywhere.  These  things  undoubtedly 
helped  keep  him  on  his  throne.  But  his  great  bribe  to  the 
nation,  as  every  one  concedes,  was  the  new  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem, the  most  sumptuous  building  the  Jews  ever  owned. 

237.  The  Temple  of  Herod.  When  Herod  proposed  to 
rebuild  the  temple  there  was  consternation  lest  the  sacred 
place  be  desecrated.  But  Herod  began  at  once  to  train  large 
numbers  of  the  priests  as  masons  and  carpenters,  so  that  they, 
rather  than  unsanctified  workmen  might  perform  the  sacred 
task.  First  he  enlarged  the  narrow  summit  of  Mount  Moriah 
by  building  a  huge  platform  of  stone,  supporting  it  on  piers 
and  arches — now  seen  in  the  so-called  Solomon's  stables — 
and  buttressing  it  with  a  wall  of  magnificent  hewn  stone. 


THE   TEMPLE   OF   HEROD  339 

This  platform,  about  a  thousand  feet  square  and  extending 
on  all  sides  but  the  north,  quite  covered  up  the  site  of  Solo- 
mon's palace.  All  around  the  borders  of  this  area  he  erected 
beautiful   colonnades   of   marble,    row    on   row,    and   roofed 


Fig.    149— HEROD'S    SAMARIA 

A  good  portion  of  the  hill  is  here  shown.  Note  the  outer  defensive  wall  follow- 
ing the  contours  of  the  land;  the  western  gate — no  doubt  the  one  outside 
of  which  the  lepers  sat  in  Benhadad's  day,  the  street  of  columns  running 
round  the  crest  of  the  hill — monoliths  of  limestone  about  18  feet  high,  in 
four  rows;  the  citadel  toward  the  left,  on  which  were  the  earlier  palaces 
and  Herod's  Augustus  temple.  Between  the  citadel  and  the  village  lies 
the  rectangle  of  the  basilica,  while  perhaps  two  hundred  feet  below  to  the 
northeast,  the  stadium  was  built,  its  rounded  end  adjusting  itself  to  a  bay 
in  the  hill. 


them  with  cedar  of  Lebanon.  These  formed  the  famous 
porches  or  cloisters  in  which  the  citizens  of  Jerusalem  could 
walk  or  lounge  and  the  rabbis  hold  their  schools.  Solomon's 
Porch  was  the  eastern  colonnade,  the  Royal  Porch  the 
southern.  All  the  area  so  far  mentioned  was  called  the  Court 
of  the  Gentiles.  From  this  platform  and  these  porches  there 
arose  toward  the  centre  various  nights  of  steps  leading  to  a 


340 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


higher  level.  No  one  but  Jews  could  enter  here.  Warnings 
were  posted  to  that  effect  at  the  top  of  each  stairway.  On 
this  higher  level  was  another  colonnade  arranged  as  a  hollow 


Fig.    150— MODEL    OF    HEROD'S    TEMPLE 

Compare  Fig.  58,  which  shows  the  present  condition  of  the  temple  area.  Xotc 
the  black  edges  of  the  model,  which  indicate  the  rock-hill  called  Mount 
Moriah  (also  erroneously  Mount  Zion).  On  the  left  corner  note  the  un- 
covered gymnasium,  with  stairs  leading  up  to  the  temple  area;  to  the 
right  of  this  two  other  entrances  passing  through  a  double  and  a  triple 
gate.     Rows  of  priests'  houses  fill  in  the  spaces. 

Just  above  these  (north)  rises  the  great  retaining- wall  of  the  area,  seen  to  better 
advantage  in  Fig.  58.  To  secure  a  wide  level  space  for  his  courts,  Herod 
raised  on  vaultings  a  huge  platform  (see  Fig.  58,  the  bright  portio/n  in  the 
southeast,  and  Fig.  152,  "Solomon's  Stables").  Going  north  on  this  area 
you  come  to  the  Royal  Porch — a  long  covered  colonnade  running  east  and 
west.  You  are  now  within  the  Court  of  the  Gentiles — free  to  every  one. 
Solomon's  porch  is  the  colonnade  that  bounds  this  court  on  the  east. 

Crossing  this  court  toward  the  centre  you  come  to  a  platform  raised  on  fourteen 
steps.  Beyond  these  steps  Gentiles  might  not  go  (Fig.  151).  The  Court 
of  Israel  began  here,  surrounded  by  a  high  building  in  the  form  of  a  hollow 
square.  This  court  was  again  subdivided  into  the  Court  of  the  Women 
(east)  and  the  Court  of  the  Men  (west).  In  the  latter  was  the  Temple 
proper,  with  the  altar  of  burnt-offering.  Notice  in  the  picture  the  lofty 
facade  of  the  temple,  facing  the  rising  sun. 


square  and  the  square  itself  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  wall  of 
columns.  The  eastern  portion  was  the  Court  of  the  Women. 
The  western,  approached  through  the  lofty  Gate  Beautiful, 
was  the  Court  of  Israel,  exclusively  for  men.  All  but  the 
front  edge  of  this  latter  area  was  reserved  for  the  priests  and 
those  who  assisted  at  the  temple  service.     Within  this  for- 


THE  TEMPLE   OF   HEROD 


341 


bidden  section  arose  first  the  great  stone  altar  of  sacrifice, 
and  then  the  temple  building  proper,  a  house  about  ninety 
by  a  hundred  and  twenty  feet,  with  a  large  facade  extend- 
ing like  wings  thirty  feet  on  each  side  of  the  front  and  rising  a 


Fig.    151— WARNING-STONE    FROM    HEROD'S    TEMPLE 

Discovered  in  1871,  now  in  the  museum  at  Constantinople.  It  stood  originally 
at  the  top  of  one  of  the  stairs  that  led  to  the  Court  of  Israel.  The  warning, 
written  in  large  Greek  characters,  reads  as  follows:  "Let  no  foreigner 
enter  within  the  balustrade  and  embankment  about  the  sanctuary.  Who- 
ever is  caught  makes  himself  responsible  for  his  death  which  will  follow.'' 


hundred  and  twenty  feet  into  the  air.  The  foundation  blocks 
of  the  house  were  nearly  seventy  feet  by  nine  feet  each,  their 
outer  faces  covered  with  gold.  The  internal  arrangements  of 
the  house  were  identical  with  those  of  Solomon's  temple 
(Sec.  76),  only  instead  of  the  ark  in  the  inner  shrine  there 
was  a  slab  of  stone.  The  whole  constituted  a  structure  of 
which  the  Jews  everywhere  were  justly  proud,  and  which 
adequately  housed  the  elaborate  and  dignified  ceremonial 
which  the  Pharisees  had  developed  in  the  five  hundred  years 


342 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


since  Zerubbabel  and  his  returned  exiles  had  restored  the 
worship  of  their  fathers.  Yet  their  pride  in  the  building  was 
no  greater  than  their  detestation  of  the  builder:  contempo- 
rary rabbis  never  mention  his  name  in  connection  with  it. 


Fig.    152— SOLOMON'S    STABLES 

Compare  Fig.  58,  and  note  how  the  floor  of  the  temple  area  is  raised  high  above 
the  hill.  This  floor  is  of  stone,  and  is  supported  on  long  piers  that  run 
down  below  the  present  level  of  the  ground  to  the  solid  rock  of  the  hill. 
The  present  picture  takes  you  beneath  the  floor  and  among  these  piers. 
While  Herod  laid  the  foundations  most  of  his  superstructure  has  perished. 
These  particular  piers  were  built  by  the  emperor  Justinian  (c.  550  a.d.) 
when  he  repaired  the  area  and  built  the  church  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  now 
used  as  a  mosque  (el-Aksar),  and  shown  on  Fig.  58  against  the  south  wall; 
or  perhaps  by  the  Arabs  in  the  eighth  century.  The  crusaders  used  to 
stable  their  horses  here,  and  the  holes  pierced  in  the  stones  to  hold  the 
halter  ropes  may  still  be  seen.  In  spite  of  the  name,  none  of  this  work 
has  any  connection  with  Solomon. 


238.  Herod's  Last  Years.  It  is  difficult  to  find  in  his- 
tory a  more  pitiful  figure  than  Herod  in  his  old  age.  As  in- 
firmities increased  he  became  more  suspicious,  arbitrary  and 
unscrupulous.  He  knew  how  his  people  hated  him  and  this 
knowledge  did  not  tend  to  soften  him.  His  sons  too  began 
to  intrigue  for  the  succession;  and  the  various  factions  in 
the  harem  and  the  palace  were  always  informing  on  one  an- 
other and  receiving  their  rewards  in  scourgings,  poisonings 


HEROD'S   LAST  YEARS  343 

and  crucifixions.  It  was  a  living  hell.  Herod's  two  sons  by 
Mariamne  had  been  sent  to  Rome  for  an  education.  When 
they  returned  after  six  years  they  may  have  put  on  some 
airs,  and,  being  the  very  last  of  the  old  Jewish  house  of 
the  Maccabees,  the  thought  of  the  people  centred  on  them 
too  strongly  for  Herod's  peace  of  mind.  His  son  by  an  ear- 
lier marriage,  Antipater,  fanned  his  suspicions  with  lies  until 
Herod  finally  had  the  boys  strangled  at  Sebaste  (7  B.C.). 
Later  Herod  found  that  Antipater  was  the  real  traitor,  and 
threw  him  into  prison.  Herod  himself  now  fell  mortally 
sick.  His  ravings  were  terrible  to  hear  and  his  orders  for 
executions  blood-curdling.  Antipater  was  the  last  victim  of 
his  rage;  which  led  Augustus  when  he  heard  of  it  to  exclaim: 
"Better  be  Herod's  pig  than  his  son."  Five  days  later  the 
royal  maniac  died  at  Jericho  (4  B.C.),  having  left  an  order 
with  his  sister  Salome  to  have  all  the  notable  Jews  butchered 
so  that  people  might  mourn  at  his  funeral.  Salome  ignored  it. 
239.  The  Effect  of  His  Reign.  Herod  would  not  have  been 
called  the  Great  were  there  not  substantial  reasons.  There 
is  no  denying  the  greatness  of  his  natural  endowment,  nor 
the  fact  that  under  his  iron  hand  the  Jewish  nation  grew  in 
wealth  and  importance.  Herod  first  of  all  gave  peace  to 
Palestine.  He  was  the  first  ruler  since  Simon  Maccabseus 
who  was  strong  enough  to  keep  order,  to  make  the  Pharisees 
and  Sadducees  stop  murdering  one  another.  In  the  process, 
to  be  sure,  he  extinguished  the  last  traces  of  Maccabean 
blood,  but  that  removed  one  potent  cause  for  quarrel. 
Moreover,  by  denying  the  Pharisees  any  participation  in 
politics  he  freed  them  to  develop  their  religious  beliefs  and 
practices,  to  study  and  teach  the  sacred  law,  and  thus  gain  a 
hold  on  the  minds  and  lives  of  the  people  that  the  Sad- 
ducees never  attained.  It  was  this  influence  that  made  the 
Jews  of  Jesus'  day  so  strongly  religious — after  their  own  idea 
of  religion.  And,  lastly,  his  gift  of  the  temple  gave  the  Jews 
all  over  the  world  a  rallying-place  and  a  pride  in  both  race 
and  religion,  turned  the  feet  of  thousands  each  year  to  wor- 


:;n 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


ship  at  his  magnificent  shrine,  and  helped  hind  them  so  in- 
separably to  their  faith  that  two  thousand  years  of  exile 
and  persecution  have  not  shaken  it.  Herod's  Hellenism  left 
no  trace;  his  Judaism  still  lives. 


Fig.   153— COPPER  COIN  OP  HEROD  I 
The  inscription  in  Greek  reads:    (right)  "Of  King  Herod. 


XXXII 
ROME'S  DEATH  THRUST 

240.  The  Palestine  of  Jesus'  Day.  The  life  of  Jesus  (6 
B.c-29  a.d.)  falls  within  the  period  we  are  now  considering 
and  gives  it  an  interest  and  importance  in  the  world's  thought 
that  it  could  not  otherwise  possess.  The  Jewish  state  is 
drifting — or  rather,  rushing — toward  a  cataract;  its  destruc- 
tion is  at  hand.  Rome  does  not  stay  the  catastrophe,  but 
rather  hastens  it  through  the  excesses  of  her  rascally  officials. 
Centuries  of  fanaticism  conspire  with  centuries  of  misrule  to 
work  the  ruin  of  the  Jewish  nation. 

Herod  divided  his  kingdom  by  will  among  his  three  sur- 
viving sons:  Archelaus  was  named  king  of  Judea,  Samaria 
and  Idumea;  Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch  of  Galilee  and  Perea; 
Philip,  tetrarch  of  the  northeast  territory.  Augustus  after 
some  delay  confirmed  the  will  though  he  styled  Archelaus 
simply  an  ethnarch  and  took  away  some  of  his  territory  east 
of  the  Jordan.  Archelaus  was  thoroughly  bad.  The  Jews 
endured  him  for  ten  years  and  then  in  6  a.d.  made  such 
a  powerful  complaint  that  the  emperor  banished  him  to 
France  and  placed  his  territory  under  a  Roman  procurator 
subject  to  the  legate  of  Syria. 

These  procurators  resided  at  Csesarea,  though  at  feasts 
and  other  important  functions  they  stayed  in  Jerusalem, 
occupying  Herod's  palace  which  was  henceforth  called  the 
Pretorium  (John  1828).  They  exercised  supreme  military 
and  financial  control  and  alone  had  power  of  life  and  death. 
They  ruled,  with  a  brief  interim,  from  6  to  66  a.d.  In  gen- 
eral they  were  a  disgrace  to  the  government  they  repre- 
sented.    Pontius  Pilate,  whose  connection  with  the  death  of 

345 


346 


THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


Jesus  alone  makes  him  immortal,  was  procurator  from  26  to 
36  a.d.,  and  furnished  his  full  quota  of  torment  for  the  Jews. 
In  Galilee  Herod  Antipas  had  a  long  reign  of  forty-three 
years  (4  B.C. -39  a.d.),  a  crafty,  ambitious,  and  unscrupu- 
lous ruler  whom  Jesus  characterized  as  "  that  fox."    He  is  the 


Fig.  154— JERUSALEM  FROM  THE  NORTHEAST 

Jerusalem  is  builded  as  a  city  that  is  compact  together."  Ps.  1223.  The 
present  walls  are  only  half  a  mile  on  a  side,  enclosing  therefore  an  area  of 
a  quarter  of  a  square  mile.  Within  this  space  about  65,000  people  live. 
A  modern  suburb  containing  perhaps  35,000  has  arisen  to  the  north  (right) 
of  the  city.  Find  the  valley  of  the  Kidron,  the  temple  area,  the  site  of 
Herod's  palace. 


tyrant  who  put  John  the  Baptist  to  death  and  scoffed  at 
Jesus  during  his  trial  at  Jerusalem.  Philip  (4  B.C. -39  a.d.) 
seems  to  have  been  a  good  ruler,  but  his  tetrarchy  contained 
practically  no  Jews. 

241.  The  Reign  of  Herod  Agrippa  I  (41-44  a.d.).  The 
rule  of  the  procurators  in  Judea  is  broken  only  by  the  three- 
year  reign  of  King  Herod  Agrippa.  This  man  owed  his  suc- 
cess to  the  fact  that  in  his  early  days  in  Rome  he  gained  the 
favor  of  the  emperor  Caligula.  When  his  uncle  Philip  died, 
Caligula  gave  that  tetrarchy  to  Agrippa,  together  with  the 


REIGN   OF   HEROD   AGRIPPA   I  347 

title  of  King.  At  the  assassination  of  Caligula,  Agrippa  was 
instrumental  in  placing  his  boon  companion  Claudius  on  the 
throne,  who  as  a  reward  banished  Antipas  to  France  and  gave 
histetrarchy  also  to  Agrippa.  Soon  after  (41  a.d.),  the  emperor 
added  the  territory  of  the  Judean  procurators,  so  that  for 
the  last  time  in  history  a  king  ruled  all  of  Palestine.  Agrippa 
was  a  fairly  good  ruler,  tried  to  be  a  pious  Jew  and  even 
went  so  far  as  to  persecute  the  rising  Christian  church  in 
order  to  please  the  Jews  (Acts  121"3).  He  died  shortly  after- 
ward at  Caesarea  (Acts  1218"23). 

242.  Herod  Agrippa  II  and  the  Apostle  Paul.  The  other 
Agrippa  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Acts  is  Herod  Agrippa  II, 
who  was  tetrarch  of  Philip's  former  territory,  Gaulonitis. 
He  comes  into  the  narrative  as  friend  of  the  procurator  Felix 
who  married  his  sister  Drusilla  and  who  delayed  his  judg- 
ment in  the  case  of  the  apostle  Paul,  hoping  that  Paul  would 
bribe  him  (Acts  2331-2427).  Felix  was  one  of  the  worst  of 
the  Roman  procurators.  While  Paul  was  lying  in  his  dun- 
geon at  Csesarea,  the  city  was  in  open  revolt  against  him. 
After  he  was  deposed,  Agrippa  kept  up  his  friendship  with  his 
successor  Festus,  perhaps  the  best  procurator  of  the  lot,  and 
with  him  had  the  pleasure  of  listening  to  Paul's  famous  speech 
recorded  in  Acts  26.  Festus  had  a  sufficient  sense  of  jus- 
tice to  see  Paul's  innocence;  but  Paul  by  this  time  had 
taken  the  case  out  of  the  procurator's  hands  by  appealing 
to  Caesar. 

243.  The  Great  Rebellion.  In  all  these  changes  of  gov- 
ernors it  is  evident  that  the  Jews  themselves  had  no  voice. 
The  nation  that  had  been  the  first  to  embody  in  lasting  in- 
stitutions the  true  spirit  of  democracy,  now  through  the 
wicked  ambitions  of  its  chosen  rulers  found  itself  in  the  grip 
of  Roman  military  despotism.  Under  Rome's  strangle-hold, 
self-government  died,  but  not  the  spirit  of  freedom.  Driven 
mad  by  their  governors'  utter  disregard  for  all  rights  and 
decency,  the  Jews  broke  into  open  rebellion  in  66  a.d.  First 
they  won  some  victories  over  the  legions  sent  from  Syria. 


348  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

The  emperor  Nero  realizing  the  seriousness  of  the  revolt, 
despatched  his  best  generals,  Vespasian  and  Titus,  to  sub- 
due it.  Beginning  in  the  north,  they  reduced  Galilee  after  a 
year  of  severe  fighting,  then  took  the  territory  west  and 
south  of  Jerusalem,  and  lastly  closed  in  on  the  city  itself  in 
one  of  the  most  desperate  sieges  in  history.  We  are  indebted 
to  the  Jewish  historian  Josephus  for  full  details  of  this  entire 
period.  Josephus  was  in  command  of  Jewish  forces  in  Gali- 
lee, but  early  surrendered  to  the  Roman,  used  his  influence 
to  help  the  Roman  cause,  and  after  the  great  catastrophe 
retired  to  Rome  with  the  emperor's  favor  to  spend  his  de- 
clining years  in  writing  the  history  of  his  people. 

244.  The  Siege  of  Jerusalem.  As  the  Roman  armies 
closed  about  the  sacred  city  the  conditions  within  were  in- 
deed desperate.  There  were  three  different  factions  quar- 
relling over  what  should  be  done  and  who  should  lead.  One 
held  the  lower  town,  one  the  upper  and  one  the  temple. 
The  grain-supply  in  the  Tyropean  valley,  enough  to  pro- 
vision the  city  for  a  long  siege,  became  a  bone  of  contention 
between  two  of  the  factions,  and  after  repeated  fights  and 
slaughterings  the  whole  vast  store  was  burned.  Here  indeed 
was  a  situation.  A  city  dominated  by  three  fanatical  groups 
of  soldiers  who  waged  bloody  war  on  each  other  and  butch- 
ered all  who  called  for  surrender  to  the  Romans,  a  city 
crammed  not  only  with  its  normal  population  but  with  ref- 
ugees from  the  country  and  with  an  immense  crowd  of  pil- 
grims who  had  come  up  to  the  Passover.  Estimates  of  this 
horde  vary  from  600,000  to  2,000,000,  all  jammed  into  that 
pitiful  area  of  a  single  square  mile,  powerless  to  fight  or  run 
away  and  yet  compelled  to  eat.  Before  Titus  had  fairly 
invested  the  city  they  began  to  die  like  flies. 

Titus  posted  his  tenth  legion  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  to  the 
east,  the  twelfth  and  fifteenth  on  Mount  Scopas  to  the  north, 
and  the  fifth  on  the  west,  opposite  the  present  Jaffa  gate. 
He  then  began  the  assault  on  the  northern  wall.  For  ar- 
tillery he  had  the  ballista,  a  gigantic  sling-shot  that  could 


THE   SIEGE   OF   JERUSALEM 


349 


throw  a  stone  weighing  one  hundred  and  thirty  pounds  a 
quarter  of  a  mile.  These  stones  he  painted  white  so  that 
the  gunners  could  better  follow  their  flight  and  judge  the 
range.     He  used  also  the  familiar  battering  ram,  to  supply 


Fig.    155— JERUSALEM    FROM    THE    SOUTHWEST 

You  are  looking  northeast  from  the  valley  of  Hinnom  at  a  place  called  "The 
Sultan's  Pool."  The  pool  is  now  used  as  a  cattle  market.  The  tower  is 
a  minaret  rising  from  the  Turkish  barracks  in  the  citadel.  Solomon  may 
have  had  a  tower  on  that  spot,  but  we  know  that  Herod's  palace  lay  there 
extending  from  his  towers  of  Phasael,  Hippicus  and  Mariamne  on  the 
north  (left),  along  the  wall  southward  for  a  thousand  feet.  The  hill  on 
which  the  wall  seems  to  rest  was  made  by  the  soldiers  of  Titus  during  the 
siege  (Sec.  244).  Beneath  this  earth  the  city  wall  rests  on  a  scarp  of  solid 
rock,  too  high  to  be  touched  by  rams. 


timber  for  which  and  for  his  towers  he  cut  down  every  tree 
within  ten  miles  of  Jerusalem.  In  order  to  bring  his  machines 
close  to  the  wall,  which  rose  high  above  the  perpendicular 
sides  of  the  valleys  that  surrounded  the  city,  his  soldiers 
raised  huge  mounds  of  earth  with  long  inclines,  the  remains 
of  which  may  be  seen  to-day  along  the  west  wall.  (Fig.  155.) 
So  after  almost  superhuman  preparations  the  assault  began. 
Day  and  night  the  north  wall  where  the  defense  was  weakest 


350  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

trembled  under  the  steady  impact  of  the  rams,  while  all 
around  was  desperate  fire  and  counter-fire  and  sortie,  until 
on  the  fifteenth  day  the  biggest  ram — old  Nikon,  "the  con- 
queror"— breached  the  third  or  outer  wall  and  Titus  became 
master  of  the  new  city  quarter,  Bezetha.  Nine  days  more  of 
desperate  fighting  gave  him  the  second  wall  and  the  lower 
city. 

245.  Horrors  of  the  Siege.  The  conditions  within  the  city 
were  now  pitiful  beyond  description.  Men  died  until  there 
were  none  to  bury  and  the  bodies  choked  all  the  valleys  and 
the  streets.  Those  who  had  strength  left  pillaged  and  killed 
without  mercy  that  they  might  obtain  and  hide  away  some 
little  morsel  of  food  against  worse  days  to  come.  The  whole 
city  was  filled  with  one  passion,  to  possess  just  one  mouth- 
ful of  something,  until  children  killed  their  fathers,  and 
mothers  their  children,  for  the  sake  of  the  one  scrap  of  bread 
that  was  in  their  mouths.  At  night  some  of  the  wretches 
would  steal  out  into  the  valleys  beyond  the  walls  where  the 
dead  bodies  were  rotting  to  gather  perchance  a  few  roots. 
Those  whom  the  Romans  caught  they  crucified,  five  hundred 
in  a  night.  Those  who  returned  to  the  city  were  robbed  of 
what  they  had  found,  or  were  murdered  for  its  sake.  And 
yet  neither  of  the  two  commanders  hinted  at  surrender. 
On  the  contrary,  the  defense  continued  with  incredible 
courage  and  effectiveness.  The  Jews  even  undermined  the 
Roman  mounds,  caused  the  collapse  and  almost  total  de- 
struction of  their  engines,  and  sallied  with  such  a  whirlwind 
of  rage  that  Titus  saw  his  legions  waver  before  this  half- 
starved  and  haggard  mob.  The  assault  had  failed.  The 
Roman  had  to  wait  for  his  ally,  starvation. 

Titus  now  built  a  wall  of  earth  five  miles  in  length,  com- 
pletely around  the  city  and  far  enough  away  to  be  out  of 
range  of  the  Jewish  arrows.  This  work,  vast  though  it  was, 
he  accomplished  in  three  days.  The  blockade  was  now  abso- 
lute and  the  suffering  of  the  wretched  city  was  so  intense 
that  it  moved  to  tears  even  Titus,  who  called  God  to  witness 


HORRORS   OF   THE   SIEGE 


351 


that  it  was  not  his  doing.  Again  and  again  Titus  offered 
clemency  in  return  for  surrender,  but  the  city  would  not 
listen. 

246.  The  Final  Assault.     As  the  months  passed  and  the 
defense  weakened,  Titus  renewed  his  assaults.     One  by  one, 


Fig.    156— SPOILS    FROM    JERUSALEM 

A  marble  panel  (restored)  from  the  Triumphal  Arch  of  Titus  erected  on  the 
Via  Sacra  in  Rome  half-way  from  the  Colosseum  to  the  forum,  to  com- 
memorate the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  a.d.  70.  This  panel 
presents  a  procession  of  Roman  soldiers  crowned  with  laurel,  carrying 
the  seven-branched  candlestick,  the  table  of  sbow-bread,  and  the  silver 
trumpets,  all  from  Herod's  temple. 


after  desperate  resistance,  the  remaining  walls  were  taken. 
Antonia  succumbed  and  was  pulled  down.  On  July  17,  70 
A.D.,  the  deathless  flame  went  out  and  the  daily  sacrifice  in 
the  temple  failed  for  the  first  time.  But  only  after  a  month 
more  of  fighting  and  engineering,  and  six  days  of  continuous 
play  from  the  rams  against  the  temple  wall,  did  the  Roman 
win  even  the  outer  cloisters.  John  and  his  men  made  their 
last  stand  in  the  inner  temple  and  fought  like  demons;  until 
on  August  9,  contrary  to  the  orders  of  Titus  who  hoped  to 
save  the  holy  of  holies,  soldiers  set  fire  to  a  golden  window 


352  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

through  which  there  was  a  passage  to  the  storerooms  about 
the  house.  The  noble  temple  was  doomed.  Titus  and  his 
staff  did  everything  they  could  to  save  it,  but  the  soldiers 
were  mad.  The  entire  building  was  consumed  and  all  the 
ten  thousand  men,  women,  and  children,  priests  and  com- 
mons who  were  in  the  sacred  enclosure  perished  either  by 
fire  or  the  sword. 

All  the  city,  but  the  upper  section  around  Herod's  palace, 
was  now  in  Roman  hands.  But  still  the  handful  of  its  de- 
fenders scorned  in  their  madness  Titus'  offers  of  clemency. 
Nearly  a  month  more  was  necessary  to  raise  new  mounds, 
construct  new  engines,  breach  the  walls,  and  take  possession. 
But  at  last  the  end  came.  The  Romans  slew  until  they  were 
weary,  plundered  until  the  corpses  in  the  houses  drove  them 
into  the  street,  and  then  killed  again  till  every  lane  and  alley 
was  choked  with  blood  and  dead  bodies.  Then  they  set 
fire  to  the  houses.  Those  whom  the  victor  saved  alive  would 
better  have  died;  they  were  made  to  fight  wild  beasts  at 
Csesarea  or  were  doomed  to  perpetual  labor  in  the  mines  of 
Sinai,  a  living  death  with  none  to  pity.  This  fate  to  the 
conquered.  To  the  victor,  spoil  uncounted,  the  grand  tri- 
umph at  Rome,  the  marble  arch  that  still  crowns  the  Roman 
forum,  and  the  emperor's  seat. 

So  ends  a  siege  more  heroic  and  more  tragic  than  any  in 
history. 

247.  The  Last  Agonies.  With  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  the 
Sanhedrin,  the  party  of  the  Sadducees  and  the  entire  priest- 
hood as  an  institution  perished  forever,  but  Judaism  itself 
remained.  There  was  the  dispersion  found  among  all  the 
great  commercial  cities  of  the  world;  there  were  the  law,  the 
synagogue,  and  the  rabbis.  These  things  kept  Judaism  alive. 
Many  Jews  were  still  left  in  Palestine,  so  that  the  govern- 
ment continued  under  a  Roman  prsetor.  These  Jews  gradu- 
ally overcame  the  numbness  of  defeat  and  rallied  around  their 
rabbis  at  various  places;  first  at  Jamnia,   where  a  sort  of 


THE   LAST  AGONIES  353 

"college  of  scribes"  was  formed  after  the  pattern  of  the  old 
Sanhedrin.  It  was  this  group  of  rabbis  who  in  a.d.  90  pro- 
nounced the  book  of  Jewish  scriptures  complete — our  Old 
Testament  as  it  now  stands.  Afterward  the  towns  of  Ti- 
berias and  Sepphoris  in  Galilee  became  centres  of  learned 
authority.  But  the  sullen  hatred  of  Rome  kept  showing  it- 
self in  Jewish  settlements  in  various  parts  of  the  empire. 
Messiahs  were  constantly  appearing  to  fan  useless  hopes,  and 
the  Roman  arms  had  constantly  to  be  called  upon  to  put 
down  the  revolts.  Jerusalem  still  lay  in  heaps,  peopled  only 
by  the  Tenth  Legion.  Under  the  emperor  Hadrian  who  had 
a  passion  for  building  and  restoring,  the  Jews  of  Palestine 
ventured  to  ask  permission  to  rebuild  their  temple.  Hadrian, 
warned  by  the  prevailing  spirit  of  Judaism,  refused  the  request 
and  announced  that  he  himself  was  about  to  restore  Jerusalem 
as  a  Roman  colony.  This  proposed  desecration  of  their  holy 
city  touched  off  a  fanatical  uprising,  led  by  one  Bar  Cochba 
who  declared  himself  to  be  the  Messiah.  Jews  from  all 
over  the  world  nocked  to  him.  He  proclaimed  himself  king 
(132  a.d.),  and  struck  coins  to  that  effect.  Hadrian  was 
exasperated  and  took  the  field  in  person  against  him.  The 
resistance  was  desperate  for  a  period  of  three  and  a  half 
years.  But  Hadrian  won  (135  a.d.).  He  destroyed  in  Pales- 
tine 50  fortresses  and  985  villages,  killed  in  battle  580,000 
men,  and  caused  untold  numbers  more  to  die  of  wounds  and 
famine.  The  slave  markets  of  the  East  were  again  glutted 
with  Jews. 

The  emperor  then  finished  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  in 
the  classic  style,  with  colonnaded  street,  forums,  a  basilica, 
theatre  and  stadium,  named  it  ^Elia  Capitolina,  erected  a 
temple  to  Jupiter  on  the  site  of  Herod's  temple  to  Jehovah 
and  one  to  Venus  where  now  stands  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  He  also  forbade  all  Jews  to  live  in  it  forever  or 
even  approach  near  enough  to  see  it.  The  detested  name  of 
Judea  was  blotted  from  the  Roman  vocabulary  and  the  land 
renamed  Syria  Palestina.     Thus  definitely  ended  the  life  of 


354  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

the  Jews  as  a  nation.  Henceforth  they  have  lived  only  as  a 
race  and  a  religion,  scattered  like  dust  to  the  four  corners  of 
the  earth. 

248.  Israel's  Troubled  History.  The  end  of  the  old  He- 
brew democracy  was  an  appalling  tragedy.  Helpless  in  the 
grasp  of  a  despotism  that  ruled  the  world  with  an  iron  hand, 
the  nation  poured  out  its  life  blood  in  a  frantic,  futile  at- 
tempt to  break  its  shackles.  Throughout  the  world  autoc- 
racy was  in  ascendency.  But  eighteen  centuries  must  elapse 
before  the  sun  of  righteousness  and  democracy,  whose  first 
rays  lighted  up  the  hills  of  Palestine,  was  to  stand  in  the 
zenith.  Israel  lost  its  national  life,  but  the  principles  which 
its  prophets  and  patriots  had  struggled  to  establish  sur- 
vived, and  to-day  are  triumphing  gloriously.  The  age  when 
one  powerful  nation  can  rule  the  rest  of  the  world  by  force 
of  arms  is  forever  past.  At  last  in  the  councils  of  the 
nations  the  rights  even  of  the  small  and  weak  races  are 
receiving  consideration.  Before  the  sixth  century  the  re- 
ligious ideas  that  sprang  from  rocky  Palestine  had  conquered 
the  Roman  Empire.  Israel's  long  struggle  against  despotism 
and  intrenched  injustice  was  not  in  vain,  for  the  democratic 
principles  that  Rome  suppressed  so  relentlessly  in  the  open- 
ing of  the  Christian  century  are  to-day  accepted  throughout 
the  world. 

249.  Israel's  Priceless  Gifts  to  the  World.  Israel's  glory 
consists  not  in  what  it  achieved  as  a  nation,  but  in  the 
ideals  it  gave  to  the  world.  Small,  indeed,  is  our  debt  to  the 
hundreds  of  autocratic  states  that  have  flourished  in  the  past 
compared  with  what  we  owe  to  the  little  democracies  of 
Greece  and  of  Palestine.  They  are  the  beacon-lights  that 
illumine  the  darkness  of  the  ancient  world.  From  Greece 
came  art,  science,  philosophy,  and  a  brilliant  literature. 
Israel's  contribution  was  very  different  but  equally  impor- 
tant. It  gave  the  world  a  literature  of  marvellous  simplicity 
and  beauty,  including  lyric  and  elegiac  poetry,  epic,  story 
and  history,  romances,  practical  maxims,  stirring  orations, 


ISRAEL'S   GIFTS  TO   THE   WORLD  355 

and  letters  pulsating  with  heroic  ideals.  Through  our  King 
James  Version  the  ideas  and  picturesque  idioms  of  the  Heb- 
rew scriptures  have  enriched  beyond  measure  our  English 
tongue. 

From  Israel  has  come  a  moral  code  based  on  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, which  expresses,  as  well  as  mere  laws  can,  the 
fundamental  duties  of  man  to  God  and  to  his  fellow  man. 
It  sprang  from  an  instinct  for  freedom  and  brotherhood,  per- 
haps the  earliest  and  certainly  the  most  persistent  mani- 
festation of  that  instinct  among  the  ancient  peoples  of  the 
world.  It  is  this  code  that  is  the  basis  not  only  of  the  con- 
stitutions but  also  of  the  every-day  life  of  all  the  great  de- 
mocracies of  the  present  day.  The  only  improvement  that 
has  been  made  on  this  ancient  Hebrew  code  is  to  substitute 
for  its  hundred  or  more  separate  rules  of  conduct,  love  as  the 
guiding  motive  in  all  action.  Emphasis  on  this  principle  of 
love  was  Jesus'  great  contribution  to  individual  and  social 
morality — and  Jesus  was  a  Jew. 

From  the  Hebrew  prophets,  as  well  as  from  Jesus  the 
Prophet  of  Nazareth,  come  those  principles  of  justice  to  all 
men  and  classes,  of  the  equality  of  opportunity  and  respon- 
sibility for  every  individual  and  nation,  of  good-will  between 
men  and  races,  of  service  to  the  poor  and  needy,  and  of  co- 
operation in  building  a  perfect  society  which  are  the  es- 
sence of  democracy  and  the  watchwords  of  the  modern  world 
movement. 

The  Hebrews,  too,  have  led  the  races  of  the  earth  in  the 
quest  for  the  eternal  Source  of  all  life  and  wisdom  and  good- 
ness. Almost  from  the  first  they  recognized  that  he  was  a 
God  of  justice  and  mercy  as  well  as  of  might.  As  they 
gained  deeper  spiritual  insight  they  saw  that  he  was  not 
merely  one  of  many  national  deities,  but  the  one  God  who 
rules  the  universe,  the  creator  and  preserver  of  all,  the 
Father  in  whom  we  live  and  move  and  have  our  being.  In 
the  Old  Testament  it  is  possible  to  follow  each  stage  in  the 
gradual  growth  of  this  larger  faith.      Above  all,  the  Hebrew 


356  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

prophets,  psalmists  and  sages,  and  the  greatest  Prophet  of 
them  all,  have  taught  men  how  to  enter  into  living  touch 
and  personal  co-operation  with  him,  whom  to  know  aright  is 
life  eternal. 


XXXIII 

THE  LONG,  LONG  EXILE 

Most  histories  of  the  Chosen  People  end  with  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Jewish  state.  But  Judaism  did  not  cease  in  the 
days  of  Hadrian;  its  life  has  gone  on  to  our  own  day.  It  is 
to  bridge  this  long  gap  and  relate  the  past  to  the  present 
that  this  chapter  is  added. 

250.  In  Roman  Times.  While  Rome  blotted  out  the 
Judaism  of  Judea,  she  fostered  Jews  elsewhere.  Through- 
out the  empire  the  Jews  were  allowed  the  same  rights, 
the  same  civil  and  religious  liberties  as  countless  other 
faiths.  Jews  could  be  Roman  citizens.  Even  down  to  Con- 
stantine's  time  (the  fourth  century)  and  after,  the  Jews 
suffered  no  inconveniences  or  persecutions  except  such  as 
they  brought  upon  themselves  by  their  exclusiveness  and 
their  other  racial  peculiarities.  But,  as  the  Roman  Empire 
gradually  became  Christian,  popular  dislike  grew  to  hatred 
and  frequently  showed  itself  in  acts  of  violence  on  both 
sides.  In  429,  under  the  emperor  Honorius,  the  Jews  were 
excluded  from  holding  public  office,  and  the  religious  tax 
formerly  paid  to  their  chief  rabbi  or  patriarch  was  directed 
into  the  imperial  treasury.  Then  learning  began  to  die 
among  them,  the  scholars  emigrated  from  Palestine,  and  while 
Genseric  the  Vandal  was  plundering  the  Eternal  City  and 
taking  Titus'  hard-won  Jewish  spoils  from  Rome  to  Carth- 
age, the  last  vestiges  of  the  Jewish  race  were  silently  leaving 
their  ancestral  land,  destined  not  to  return  for  fifteen  hun- 
dred years. 

251.  In  the  East  before  the  Middle  Ages.  After  the  East- 
ern Roman  Empire  (the  Byzantine)  lost  its  grip  in  Asia 
(616  a.d.),  the  Jews  in  the  East  paid  fealty  to  Parthian  and 

357 


358  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

Persian  kings.  In  Babylonia  the  Jews  were  fairly  numerous, 
descendants  of  the  Judean  exiles  who  had  never  returned  to 
Palestine.  In  the  third  Christian  century  they  developed  a 
strong  intellectual  life,  studied  the  law  and  the  traditions, 
and  by  the  year  500  completed  the  vast  work  known  as  the 
Babylonian  Talmud,  which  soon  displaced  the  earlier  Jeru- 
salem Talmud  as  an  authority.  WThen  Mohammed  arose 
(c.  622  a.d.),  he  was  at  first  favorable  to  Jews  and  derived 
much  of  the  material  of  his  Koran  from  the  Old  Testament. 
But  when  he  found  that  he  could  not  change  their  religion 
he  turned  against  them.  Many  Jewish  settlements  were 
forcibly  converted  to  Islam ;  others  had  to  pay  the  head  tax 
that  was  levied  by  the  caliphs  on  all  infidels.  The  Jews 
therefore  began  to  leave  the  East.  By  the  year  1100  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  Judaism  had  shifted  entirely  from  the 
East  to  Spain. 

252.  In  Spain  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Trade  and  per- 
secutions had  long  before  this  brought  Jewish  colonists  into 
Spain.  When  the  Western  Roman  Empire  went  to  pieces 
and  the  Visigoths  took  southwestern  Europe,  they  tolerated 
the  Jews  as  industrious  and  law-abiding  citizens.  But  Chris- 
tian hatred  pursued  them  thither.  As  the  Catholic  Church 
came  into  power,  persecutions  increased;  so  that,  when 
Tarak  and  his  Arab-Moorish  followers  crossed  over  from  Af- 
rica in  711  and  conquered  the  Spanish  peninsula,  they  were 
welcomed  by  the  Jews.  Under  the  broad-minded  sway  of  the 
Arab  the  Jew  flourished.  Thousands  came  to  this  oasis  of 
Islam  on  the  edge  of  the  cruel  Christian  desert.  Granada, 
Cordova,  Toledo  and  other  Spanish  cities  attracted  large 
settlements  of  Jews.  They  had  equal  civil  and  social  rights 
with  others.  A  friendly  rivalry  grew  up  between  Jew  and 
Arab  in  intellectual  matters,  in  philosophy,  the  study  of 
language,  the  art  of  poetry,  the  science  and  practice  of  medi- 
cine. Many  Jews  rose  to  high  office  in  the  state.  The  list 
of  noted  Spanish  Jews  is  a  long  and  honorable  one,  including 
Maimonides  (died  1204),  the  greatest  scholar  of  his  age. 


IN   THE   MIDDLE   AGES 


359 


But  as  the  Moorish 
power  waned  and  the 
Christians  gained  the 
upper  hand  again,  evil 
times  returned.  The 
Popes  framed  oppressive 
laws  and  urged  Chris- 
tian princes  to  frame 
others.  Jews  were  for- 
bidden to  hold  office, 
forbidden  to  take  interest 
on  their  loans,  and  made 
to  wear  a  distinctive 
dress.  In  1412  they  were 
made  to  dwell  only  in 
certain  quarters  of  each 
city  —  henceforth  called 
the  Ghetto.  In  1480  the 
church  introduced  into 
Spain  the  Inquisition — 
that  is,  appointed  officers 
and  courts  to  hunt  up 
heretics  and  punish  them. 
As  many  Jews  had  pre- 
tended to  become  Chris- 
tians in  order  to  escape 
persecution,  the  Inquisi- 
tion began  on  them,  with 
the  result  that  there  were 
many  imprisonments  and 
executions,  while  many 
Jewish  families  fled  the 
country.      When    King 

Ferdinand  of  Castile  finally  brought  the  Moorish  power  to 
an  end  and  made  the  Christian  power  supreme  in  Spain,  he 
made  a  decree  (1492)  banishing  all  Jews  from  the  land  and 


Fig.  157  — RELIGIOUS  DISPUTATION 
BETWEEN  JEWS  AND  CHRISTIANS 

Public  debates  between  Jews  and  non- 
Jews  were  frequently  held  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  After  the  Inquisition  was 
established  under  Pope  Innocent  III, 
the  disputes  became  mock-tourna- 
ments of  learning  and  led  to  relentless 
persecutions  of  the  Jews.  The  most 
remarkable  of  all  disputes  was  pre- 
sided over  by  Pope  Benedict  XIII  and 
lasted  from  Feb.,  1413,  to  Nov.,  1414. 
The  object  was  to  prove  from  the  Tal- 
mud that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah.  The 
outcome  was  a  decree  forbidding  the 
study  of  the  Talmud  and  inflicting 
all  kinds  of  degradation  on  the  Jews. 


360  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

confiscating  their  property.  This  was  a  cruel  edict.  Hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  the  best  citizens  Spain  ever  knew  were 
forced  into  a  new  exile.  Many  went  to  North  Africa,  Italy, 
and  even  Turkey.  One  of  the  ironies  of  history  is  that 
Christian  persecution  should  have  driven  the  Jew  into  the 
merciful  arms  of  the  Turk!  They  went  also  in  large  num- 
bers to  neighboring  Portugal.  But  in  1497  Portugal  drove 
them  out,  and  they  sought  refuge  in  England  and  the 
Netherlands.  All  this  was  a  terrible  blow  to  Judaism,  for 
the  Spanish  Jews  represented  the  highest  type  of  culture 
in  Europe.  It  was  also  a  terrible  blow  to  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal; they  never  recovered  from  this  ruthless  sacrifice  of 
their  best  citizens,  and  their  vast  colonial  empires  began  to 
shrink  almost  from  that  hour. 

253.  In  the  Rest  of  Europe.  A  similar  fate  pursued  the 
Jews  into  whatever  country  they  entered.  Strangely  enough, 
Italy  was  the  most  tolerant,  for  the  papal  power  was  less 
strong  at  the  centre  than  at  the  extremities  of  its  empire. 
In  Italy  the  Jews  became  famous  for  learning  and  especially 
for  their  skill  in  medicine.  Even  the  Popes,  contrary  to 
their  own  laws,  employed  Jewish  physicians.  After  the  Turks 
captured  Constantinople  in  1453  and  many  Greek  scholars 
fled  westward  bringing  their  precious  manuscripts  of  Greek 
philosophy  and  literature,  none  welcomed  the  new  learning 
more  eagerly  than  the  Jews.  They  became  famous  human- 
ists (teachers  of  the  new  classic  culture),  and  by  pretending 
to  become  Christians,  many  rose  to  high  positions  in  the 
state  and  in  the  professions.  But  in  1550  the  Jesuit  perse- 
cutions began  and  gradually  sealed  the  fate  of  the  Italian  Jew. 

In  the  more  northern  countries  the  Jews  did  not  reach  any 
height  of  culture,  but  they  were  always  strict  in  morals  and 
very  industrious.  Charlemagne,  the  great  Frankish  emperor 
(c.  800),  was  good  to  them.  They  reached  the  peak  of  their 
prosperity  about  1000  a.d.  Then  the  Roman  clergy  began 
hostilities.  WThen  the  Crusades  were  launched,  the  soldiers 
of  the  Cross,  thinking  that  they  could  not  better  begin  their 


IN  EUROPE 


361 


Fig.    158— JEWS    TRANSFIXING    HOSTS 

Copied  from  the  Gobelin  tapestries  in  the  cathedral  of  Saint  Gudule,  Brussels. 

A  banker  of  Enghien  was  assassinated,  and  his  wife  and  son  took  refuge  in 
Brussels.  The  assassin  spread  the  report  that  the  Jews  had  stolen  from 
a  church  the  consecrated  wafers  of  the  Mass  in  order  to  pierce  them  with 
poniards  and  thus  murder  Christ  afresh.  This  led  to  the  burning  of 
hundreds  of  Jews  at  Brussels,  May  22,  1370,  and  a  decree  of  banishment 
of  the  race  from  Belgium.  This  picture  illustrates  the  legend  that  the 
wafers  as  they  were  pierced  spouted  blood.  Note  the  consternation  into 
which  the  Jews  are  thrown  by  the  miracle. 


362 


THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 


campaign  than  by  mas- 
sacring the  murderers 
of  Christ,  turned  them- 
selves loose  upon  the 
Jews  of  the  Rhine  coun- 
try and  beyond.  For 
two  months  they  plun- 
dered and  murdered 
(1096),  until  12,000  Jews 
perished.  This  was  the 
most  severe  persecution 
the  Jews  had  experienced 
in  a  thousand  years.  The 
Second  Crusade  adopted 
similar  measures,  aided 
by  an  edict  from  the 
Pope  that  no  interest 
need  be  paid  by  any 
Christian  who  owed  a 
Jew  money.  The  Jew 
lost  all  political  standing 
and  all  rights  before  the 
law.  In  1242  the  author- 
ities began  burning  the 
Talmud,  thinking  to  ex- 
tinguish the  Jewish  faith. 
In  Paris  twenty-four 
cartloads  were  publicly 
burned.  From  France 
the  Jews  were  expelled  in 
1306;  then  having  been 
allowed  to  return,  were 
again  expelled  in  1394. 
When  the  Black  Death  ravaged  Europe  in  the  fourteenth 
century  and  destroyed  one  quarter  of  the  population,  reports 
were  spread  that  the  Jews  had  caused  it  by  poisoning  the 


Fig.   159  — COSTUME     OP     GERMAN 

JEWS  OF  THE  THIRTEENTH 

CENTURY 

The  Lateran  Council  of  1215  decreed  that 
all  Jews  should  wear  a  badge,  so  that 
they  might  not  be  mistaken  for  Chris- 
tians. Usually  this  was  some  device 
sewn  on  the  garments,  but  sometimes 
it  was  a  hat  of  peculiar  shape,  like 
those  shown  in  this  picture  The 
garments  of  Jews  were  usually  black. 
The  long  mantle  indicates  that  Jews 
were  debarred  from  the  handicrafts. 


IN  EUROPE 


363 


wells.  Chiefly  in  Germany  the  cler- 
gy and  the  monks  invented  also  the 
lies  that  the  Jews  were  accustomed 
to  kidnap  Christian  children  and  eat 
their  flesh  in  connection  with  the 
Passover,  likewise  to  desecrate  on 
occasion  the  Sacrament  of  the  Chris- 
tians. Urged  on  by  these  holy  men 
the  church  began  another  horrible 
persecution,  to  the  lasting  disgrace 
of  Christendom  in  general  and 
Germany  in  particular.  Hosts  of 
German  Jews  now  fled  to  Poland 
and  Russia.  Though  later  princes 
recognized  the  damage  done  to  their 
prosperity  by  this  flight  of  industri- 
ous citizens,  and  revoked  the  edicts 
passed  against  them,  spasms  of  per- 
secution occurred  for  many  years. 

In  England  the  Jews  were  tolerat- 
ed until  the  reign  of  the  infamous 
Richard  the  Lion-hearted.  Then 
persecutions  began,  incited  by  re- 
ligious bigotry,  race  prejudice,  and 
envy  of  the  riches  of  individual 
Jewish  merchants.  Jews  were  finally 
banished  from  England  by  Edward 
I  in  1290. 

Thus  everywhere  in  the  Middle 
Ages  the  Jews  were  politically  and 
socially  crushed  and  degraded. 
They  had  no  country.  Instead, 
they  were  crowded  into  the  ghettos 
of  cities,  forced  to  wear  distinctive 
clothes,  to  pay  special  taxes.  They 
were  excluded  from  trade,  from  ag- 


Fig.     160— JEW     OF     KO- 

LOMIA,   IN    AUSTRIAN 

GALICIA 

A  modern  costume  Note 
the  fur  on  the  hat,  the 
old-fashioned  "paletot" 
or  coat  reaching  to  the 
ankles,  and  the  white 
socks  into  which  the 
trousers  are  tucked. 


364  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

riculture,  and  from  offices  of  state.  Their  only  chance  for 
a  livelihood  lay  in  petty  commerce  and  the  traffic  in  money. 
Life  and  property  were  constantly  exposed  to  attack  and 
seizure.  Under  all  this  abusive  and  cruel  treatment,  it  is 
no  wonder  that  the  Jews  developed  a  horror  of  Christianity 
that  it  will  take  centuries  to  dispel.  Persecution,  however, 
had  one  beneficial  result:  it  brought  to  its  highest  pitch  devo- 
tion to  one  another  and  to  their  faith.  If  the  Jews  have  a 
united  and  strong  religion  to-day  they  have  the  Christians 
to  thank  for  it. 

254.  The  Turn  of  the  Tide.  Since  the  beginning  of  modern 
times  and  the  development  within  the  church  of  the  Protes- 
tant faith  and  the  democratic  spirit,  the  condition  of  the 
Jew  has  steadily  improved.  In  England,  under  Cromwell, 
the  Jews  were  allowed  to  return,  though  only  a  few  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  privilege.  These  came  mostly  from  Holland 
— originally  from  Spain  and  Portugal.  German  and  Polish 
Jews  came  toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  For 
a  long  time  these  were  only  resident  aliens.  They  had  no 
political  nor  social  rights,  were  net  allowed  to  attend  a  uni- 
versity, to  enter  a  liberal  profession,  or  hold  public  office. 
As  late  as  1828  only  twelve  Jewish  brokers  were  allowed  in 
London.  But  public  sentiment  grew  constantly  more  favor- 
able. In  1858  the  last  political  disability  was  removed  and 
Baron  de  Rothschild  took  a  seat  in  Parliament.  In  1871  the 
universities  were  opened  to  the  Jews  and  their  social  free- 
dom became  complete.  Benjamin  Disraeli  (Lord  Beacons- 
field),  England's  most  conspicuous  Jew,  became  prime  min- 
ister under  Queen  Victoria  (1874-1880). 

After  Holland  was  freed  from  the  control  of  Catholic 
Spain  (1581)  the  Jews  who  had  come  thither  from  Spain  and 
Portugal  in  large  numbers  found  safety  and  won  prosperity. 
Amsterdam  claims  to-day  many  rich  and  educated  Jews. 
In  the  other  European  states,  as  education  and  democracy 
have  increased,  the  various  restrictions  that  surrounded  the 
Jews  have  been  removed.     Only  in  Russia  and  the  Balkans, 


THE   TURN   OF   THE   TIDE 


365 


where  mediaeval  conditions  prevail,  there  have  been  occasional 
outbreaks  against  them  down  to  our  own  day.  Also  in  the 
despotically  governed  lands  of  Africa  and  Asia  conditions 
are   still   mediaeval.      In   the   great   modern   democracies   of 


Fig.    161— AN    ASHKENAZIM    JEW    OF    TIBERIAS 

Most  Jews  in  Palestine  belong  either  to  the  sect  of  the  Shephardim,  who  speak 
mainly  Spanish  and  came  originally  from  Spain  after  the  expulsion  (Sec. 
252),  or  the  Ashkenazim,  who  speak  Yiddish — a  jargon  of  German  and 
Hebrew — and  consist  largely  of  Germans,  Poles,  Russians  and  Rouman- 
ians. 


Australia  and  America  the  Jews  have  had  equal  rights  with 
citizens  of  other  lineage.  This  is  why  the  United  States  in 
particular  has  become  the  great  refuge  of  the  race,  and  why 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  with  over  five  millions  of  people, 
every  fifth  person  is  a  Jew.  The  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
Jewish  world  is  now  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

255.  The  Zionist  Hopes.     Throughout  the  long  exile  there 
have  been  some  whose  hopes  have  turned  to  the  land  of  their 


366  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

fathers.  It  has  seemed  to  them  incredible  that  a  people 
whose  title  to  a  country  was  once  so  clear  and  whose  racial 
spirit  is  still  unbroken  should  never  again  have  a  home  they 
could  call  their  own.  Their  own  sacred  books  give  grounds 
for  such  a  hope.  The  Hebrew  prophets  spoke  of  a  redeemed 
land,  of  peace  and  plenty,  of  a  wonderful  kingdom  and  a 
glorious  future. 

"  The  ransomed  of  Jehovah  shall  return  and  come  with 
singing  unto  Zion;  and  everlasting  joy  shall  be  upon  their 
heads." 

"  O  thou  afflicted,  tossed  with  tempest  and  not  comforted, 
behold,  I  will  set  thy  stones  in  fair  colors  and  lay  thy  foun- 
dations with  sapphires.  And  I  will  make  thy  pinnacles  of 
rubies  and  thy  gates  of  carbuncles,  and  all  thy  border  of 
precious  stones.  And  all  thy  children  shall  be  taught  of 
Jehovah,  and  great  shall  be  the  peace  of  thy  children." 

This  hope  has  been  like  a  bright  and  morning  star  through 
the  centuries,  and  while  it  has  not  comforted  and  inspired  all 
the  sons  of  Israel,  it  has  beckoned  many  eastward.  As  soon 
as  Turkish  rule  was  established  in  the  Holy  Land  and  the 
persecutions  of  Christians  made  Europe  a  long  Gehenna  for 
the  Jew,  pilgrims  and  emigrants  began  to  return  to  Palestine. 
Especially  the  aged  longed  to  spend  their  last  days  there  and 
to  be  buried  in  its  sacred  soil.  Jerusalem  became  the  seat 
of  a  large  Jewish  colony,  enlisted  chiefly  from  Spain.  Since 
the  people  who  came  were  not  producers  of  wealth,  it  was 
necessary  to  support  them  by  contributions  from  abroad. 
The  stream  of  immigrants  and  of  money  increased  all  through 
the  last  century,  until,  jus.t  before  the  Great  War,  the  num- 
bers who  came  rose  to  five  thousand  a  year.  Agricultural 
colonies  were  started  on  the  plain  of  Sharon  and  in  the  fertile 
valleys  of  Galilee — Rishon  le  Zion,  Zammarin,  Rekhoboth, 
Es-Sajara,  and  elsewhere.  In  Europe  and  America  the 
Zionist  movement  became  a  definite  party  within  the  Jewish 
fold.  Plans  were  outlined  for  the  reclamation  of  the  land  by 
irrigation,   terracing,   afforestation,   and  the  use  of  modern 


THE   ZIONIST   HOPES 


367 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood.  N.  Y. 

Fig.    162— GENERAL    ALLENBY    ENTERING   JERUSALEM 

On  Dec.  11,  1917,  after  the  surrender  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Turks,  Gen.  Allenby 
took  formal  possession  of  the  city.  Outside  the  Jaffa  gate — the  inner  door 
of  which  is  shown  above — he  was  received  by  the  military  governor;  then 
he  entered  on  foot,  without  the  blare  of  trumpets  or  the  firing  of  a  salute, 
and  halted  at  the  citadel  (a  hundred  yards  to  our  left),  where  the  proc- 
lamation of  military  law  was  read  in  four  languages  to  the  assembled 
notables  of  the  city.  This  act  marked  the  passing  of  Palestine  to  Christian 
control  after  over  seven  hundred  years  of  Mohammedan  domination. 

The  blank  space  to  the  left  of  the  tower  was  made  by  tearing  down  a  portion  of 
the  city  wall  in  order  to  facilitate  the  pompous  entrance  of  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
II  in  1898!     Never  again  !     "  Sic  transit  gloria  mundi." 


368  THE   HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH 

machinery.  When  the  Great  War  broke  out  Palestine  again 
became  the  bridge  by  which  alien  armies  crossed  to  coveted 
possessions  beyond.  Again  the  land  was  torn  and  drenched 
in  blood.  But  the  fortune  of  war,  or  the  hand  of  Providence, 
seems  now  to  have  given  to  the  allied  democracies  of  the 
world  the  right  to  set  Palestine  free  forever  from  the  rule  of 
tyrants  and  to  open  its  gates  once  more  to  the  Chosen  People 
of  old. 

WThen  General  Allenby  walked  reverently  through  the  Jaffa 
gate  in  December,  1917,  and  caused  his  proclamation  of 
peace  and  justice  to  be  read  from  the  very  pretorium  where 
the  Tenth  Legion  of  Hadrian  once  encamped  to  enforce 
exile  upon  the  Jewish  race,  a  thrill  of  joy  and  of  expectancy 
encircled  the  world.  In  all  human  probability  the  next 
decade  will  see  a  new  and  meaningful  fulfilment  of  the  vision 
of  the  seer  of  old: 

"The  Lord  shall  comfort  Zion, 
He  will  comfort  her  waste  places; 
And  make  her  like  Eden, 
Like  the  garden  of  the  Lord." 

No  Christian  will  for  a  moment  begrudge  this  long-suffering 
people  their  day  of  hope  and  of  fulfilment.  Rather  will  the 
world  look  on  with  a  heart  of  good-will  as  the  Jews  attempt 
on  their  ancient  homeland  an  experiment  in  social  and  eco- 
nomic organization  in  which  all  that  is  best  of  the  teachings 
of  their  ancient  priests  and  prophets  shall  conspire  with  the 
insight  of  the  Greatest  Jew  and  the  accumulated  wisdom  of 
the  Christian  centuries  to  found  a  commonwealth  which  will 
at  last  fully  represent  the  democratic  ideals  of  ancient  Israel. 


APPENDIX 
I.     SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS 

Time  Required. — This  book  is  designed  for  a  year's  work  in  Old  Testa- 
ment history.  If  only  one  recitation  a  week  is  scheduled,  the  text  itself 
and  the  map  work  can  be  covered.  If  two  recitations  are  available, 
the  Bible  sources  can  be  added,  and  if  three,  the  topics  also.  Community 
schools  with  shorter  courses  will  be  able  to  assign  two  chapters  to  a  les- 
son. Sunday-schools  can  cover  the  text  in  the  usual  year  of  nine  months, 
or  if  twelve  months  are  available,  the  text  and  the  more  important 
sources. 

Equipment. — It  is  desirable  that  the  pupil  should  have  in  addition 
to  this  text-book  a  set  of  outline  maps  (these  maps  may  be  secured 
from  Warren  S.  Kilburn,  394  Atlantic  Avenue,  Boston,  Mass.);  a  Bible, 
preferably  the  Old  Testament  volume  of  the  Shorter  Bible  which  gives 
a  modern  translation  and  a  consecutive  text  without  duplicates,  or 
the  American  revised  edition;  a  set  of  wax  crayons  (recommended: 
"Crayola,"  twelve  colors,  sold  by  the  New  York  Sunday-school  Com- 
mission, 73  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York) ;  and  a  note-book  (recommended : 
The  Biflex  Binder  Note-book  No.  21,  holding  sheets  8  x  103^  inches, 
issued  by  Ginn  and  Company,  Boston).  The  outline  maps  are  punched 
to  fit  this  size. 

Note-book  Work. — The  note-book  should  contain  chapter  summaries, 
brief  story  outlines  from  the  Bible  sources,  biographies  of  leading  char- 
acters, special  reports  on  assigned  topics,  and  maps.  The  immature 
student  should  be  directed  to  make  abstracts  of  most  of  the  material 
used,  in  order  to  discover  the  essential  points  in  a  narrative  and  to 
help  fix  them  in  mind.  It  will  be  helpful  to  reserve  in  the  note-book 
a  separate  page  where  the  important  proper  names  can  be  listed  as 
they  occur  in  the  lessons,  the  teacher  dictating  such  as  in  his  judgment 
should  be  memorized.  Place  after  each  name  a  number  indicating  the 
section  of  the  text  where  it  first  occurred.  This  method  will  facilitate 
review  work.  Pupils  should  be  led  to  take  pride  in  this  work,  for  to 
keep  a  good  note-book  means  training  in  accuracy,  judgment,  neatness, 
and  artistic  taste. 

Map  Work. — Most  of  the  work  consists  in  copying  the  printed  maps 
or  such  parts  of  them  as  the  teacher  specifies.    An  historical  map  is  a 

369 


370  APPENDIX 

diagram  of  facts  or  events,  a  kind  of  shorthand  by  means  of  which 
historic  processes  can  be  made  clear  and  definite.  The  act  of  copying 
also  helps  to  fix  the  data. 

The  name  of  the  particular  outline  map  to  be  used  in  each  case  is 
given  in  parenthesis.  In  filling  in  the  map,  first  use  ink  to  write  in  names 
and  other  data;  then  use  crayons  for  the  color  features.  After  the 
crayon  has  been  applied  the  paper  will  not  take  ink.  Put  the  color 
on  heavily,  then  scrape  the  map  lightly  with  a  sharp  knife.  This  leaves 
a  faint  tint  that  looks  as  even  and  delicate  as  a  water-color  wash.  Where 
the  maps  in  this  book  use  one  color  and  hatch-lines  or  other  devices, 
the  pupil  should  use  two  or  more  colors.  Try  to  produce  harmonious 
color  effects.  Instead  of  cumbering  the  maps  with  many  names,  use 
figures  enclosed  in  circles  as  in  Map  No.  6,  then  in  the  margin  or  else- 
where write  the  key  to  the  figures.  Learn  to  print  neatly;  nothing  is 
more  essential  to  the  artistic  perfection  of  a  map. 

The  school  library  should  contain  Smith  and  Bartholomew's  Atlas 
of  the  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land. 

The  classroom  should  possess  the  Kent  and  Madsen's  series  of  his- 
torical maps  and  chronological  chart  for  Bible  students,  on  spring  rol- 
lers in  a  case;  or  if  the  classroom  is  small,  the  corresponding  abridged 
edition  printed  on  paper  and  hung  on  a  stand.  These  may  be  secured 
from  any  of  the  leading  denominational  publishing  societies. 

It  is  recommended  also  that  the  teacher  paint  on  the  blackboard, 
with  white  enamel  paint,  outline  maps  duplicating  the  Hebrew  World 
and  the  Palestine  sheets  that  the  pupils  use.  These  are  invaluable  for 
sketching  in  historical  and  geographical  data  while  teaching,  and  for 
testing  a  pupil's  knowledge.  One  should  be  able  to  identify  places  on 
a  map  whether  the  names  are  printed  there  or  not. 

Illustrations. — Great  emphasis  is  placed  on  pictures  for  two  reasons: 
they  furnish  an  accurate  idea  of  the  physical  backgrounds  of  the  narra- 
tives, and  they  present  definite  data  from  which  to  form  judgments. 

The  teacher  who  has  not  visited  Palestine  will  need  to  study  the 
pictures  with  special  care  and  to  supplement  the  study  with  careful 
reading.  Most  teachers  fail  in  vividness  and  pictorial  power  simply 
because  they  cannot  visualize  the  backgrounds.  The  stereograph  will 
prove  a  great  help  to  such.  Underwood  and  Underwood,  417  Fifth 
Avenue,  New  York,  publish  a  set  of  one  hundred  stereographs  on  Egypt, 
with  a  fascinating  book  of  description  by  Professor  Breasted;  also 
one  hundred  on  Palestine  with  a  similar  book  by  Hurlbut  and  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  historical  views  with  descriptions  by  Kent;  and  various 


APPENDIX  371 

other  sets  such  as  Mesopotamia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  from  which 
selections  may  be  made.  The  one  book  of  description  that  no  teacher 
should  fail  to  read  is  George  A.  Smith:  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy 
Land.  Kent:  Biblical  Geography  and  History  traces  the  influence  of 
the  geographical  background  on  the  life  and  history  of  the  Hebrew 
people.  After  these,  books  on  Palestine  are  legion,  for  which  consult 
the  public  library.  One  of  the  best  scientific  descriptions  is  Hunting- 
ton: Palestine  and  its  Transformation.  For  accurate  data  of  all  kinds, 
Baedeker's  Palestine  is  indispensable. 

Under  each  picture  in  this  book  are  comments  and  questions  de- 
signed to  call  attention  to  important  details  and  to  stimulate  thought. 
Pictures  must  be  more  than  glanced  at,  they  must  be  studied.  Teach 
the  students  to  interpret  details,  to  draw  inferences,  in  short,  to  make 
the  pictures  a  part  of  the  laboratory  material  of  the  course. 

Biblical  Material. — Each  chapter  contains  a  list  of  references  to  the 
sources.  Every  one  ought  to  be  familiar  with  the  Bible  narratives. 
Unless  this  familiarity  has  already  been  obtained,  the  study  of  these 
references  will  demand  as  much  time  as  the  study  of  the  text-book  it- 
self. Teachers  must  outline  this  work  as  the  situation  demands.  Gen- 
erally, however,  the  distinctly  historical  references  may  be  omitted, 
for  they  duplicate  the  text,  and  the  story  references  emphasized,  for 
they  supplement  it.  In  the  later  chapters  the  sections  that  deal  with 
the  Psalms,  Prophets,  and  distinctly  literary  portions  of  the  Bible  may 
well  be  reserved  for  a  subsequent  study,  and  the  extra-biblical  references 
may  be  ignored.  As  a  background  for  effective  work,  each  teacher 
should  be  familiar  with  the  historical,  geographical,  archaeological,  and 
source  material  contained  in  the  first  four  volumes  of  Kent's  Historical 
Bible  or  with  the  equivalent. 

Topics. — No  class  will  have  time  to  discuss  all  of  the  topics  given  in 
the  laboratory  material.  The  list  is  meant  to  be  suggestive  and  to 
offer  the  brighter  students  a  chance  to  make  additional  contributions 
to  the  interest  of  the  recitation.  If  the  teacher  can  suggest  to  the  pupil 
where  to  look  up  these  topics,  it  will  save  his  time  and  no  doubt  pre- 
vent discouragement. 

Reference  Books. — Every  school  should  have  a  good  Bible  dictionary 
such  as  Hastings'  one-volume  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  The  more  ex- 
tensive dictionaries  and  encyclopaedias  are  likely  to  be  too  technical  and 
voluminous  for  young  students.  See  that  the  school  library  adds  a  few 
books  to  this  department  each  year;  and  then  show  pupils  how  by  the 
use  of  indexes,  tables  of  contents,  and  the  like  they  can  quickly  find 


372  APPENDIX 

the  needed  information.    This  mastery  of  the  tools  of  scholarship  is  a 
valuable  part  of  school  training. 

In  addition  to  the  books  already  mentioned  the  following  should 
be  accessible  to  the  pupils: 

HEBREW  HISTORIES 

Smith,  H.  P.,  Old  Testament  History. 

Kent,  C.  F.,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  during  the  Babylonian,  Persian, 

and  Greek  Periods. 
Riggs,  J.  H.,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  during  the  Roman  Period. 
Josephus,  Antiquities  and  the  Jewish  War. 
Graetz,  H.,  History  of  the  Jews. 
Cassel,  D.,  Manual  of  Jewish  History  and  Literature. 

ARCH.EOLOGY  AND   CONTEMPORARY  HISTORY 

Barton,  G.  A.,  Archeology  and  the  Bible. 

Price,  I.  M.,  The  Old  Testament  and  the  Monuments. 

Paton,  L.  B.,  Jerusalem  in  Bible  Times. 

Smith,  G.  A.,  Jerusalem  (2  vols.). 

Erman,  A.,  Life  in  Egypt. 

Budge,  E.  A.,  Egyptian  Magic. 

Goodspeed,  G.  S.,  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. 

Breasted,  J.  A.,  History  of  the  Ancient  World  and  History  of  the  Ancient 

Egyptians. 
Hastings,  J.,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (5  vols.). 
Charles,  R.  H.,  Old  Testament  Apocryphal  Writings. 

GEOGRAPHY 

Kent,  C.  F.,  Biblical  History  and  Geography. 
Wild,  L.  H.,  Geographic  Influences  in  0.   T.  Masterpieces. 
Smith,  G.  A.,  The  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land. 
Hodge,  R.  M.3  Historical  Geography  of  Bible  Lands. 

ETHICS  AND   RELIGION 

Fowler,  H.  T.,  Origin  and  Groivth  of  the  Religion  of  Israel. 

Smith,  H.  P.,  The  Religion  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Mitchell,  H.  G.,  The  Ethics  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Kent,  C.  F.,  The  Social  Teachings  of  the  Prophets  and  Jesus. 

Chamberlain,  The  Hebrew  Prophets. 

Willett,  H.  E.,  The  Moral  Leaders  of  Israel. 

Moore,  G.  F.,  History  of  Religions  (2  vols.). 


APPENDIX  373 

The  Recitation. — The  recitation  hour  is  an  opportunity  for  discussion 
and  teaching.  There  are  less  time-consuming  ways  of  finding  out 
whether  a  pupil  has  studied  his  lesson  than  the  usual  cross-examination 
method.  Use  summaries  written  outside,  or  a  brief  written  quiz  at 
the  beginning  of  the  hour.  The  true  teacher  will  spend  his  time  creat- 
ing backgrounds,  modernizing  ancient  characters  and  situations  until 
they  live  again,  inducing  emotions  and  asking  questions  that  test  the 
imagination  and  call  forth  ethical  judgments.  The  well-prepared  pupil 
will  contribute  his  observations  and  judgments,  present  his  special 
topic,  and  ask  many  questions  that  have  occurred  to  him  during  his 
study.  The  bluffer  and  shirker  will  be  compelled  to  follow  the  reci- 
tation and  to  tell  from  time  to  time  what  he  has  just  heard  and  what 
he  thinks  about  it.  Thus  the  recitation  will  be  alive,  every  one  con- 
tributing something  and  the  master  unifying  and  vivifying  all. 

Spiritual  Culture. — The  end  of  historical  study  is  character  building 
as  well  as  knowledge.  The  material  of  history  should  be  used  to  train 
the  powers  of  observation  and  reflection,  to  establish  ideals  of  life  and 
standards  of  judgment.  One  of  the  most  vital  facts  to  keep  in  mind 
in  the  study  of  history  is  that  ideals  have  a  dynamic  quality;  they 
move  men  and  mould  nations  quite  as  much  as  do  economic  consider- 
ations. The  history  of  no  people  illustrates  this  fact  better  than  that 
of  the  Hebrews.  Show  how,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  great  men 
of  Hebrew  history,  ideals  have  controlled  for  good  or  evil,  and  how 
the  whole  destiny  of  the  race  has  been  changed  by  a  single  human 
will.  Out  of  such  teaching  ought  to  emerge  the  great  thought,  espe- 
cially vital  for  our  generation,  that  life  is  not  only  an  adjustment  to 
environment,  but  oftentimes  a  protest  against  environment  and  a  re- 
shaping of  it  along  ideal  lines. 

In  studying  historical  material  bear  these  topics  in  mind  as  a  guide 
to  observation  and  reflection:*  social  classes — their  conflicts  and  ad- 
justments; attitudes  toward  those  who  differ — tolerance  and  intoler- 
ance, democratic  appreciation,  encouragement;  patriotism,  including 
changes  in  the  conception  of  loyalty;  education;  changing  moral  and 
religious  standards.  The  last-named  topic  is  of  primal  importance  in 
studying  the  Old  Testament;   for  everywhere  in  its  literature  are  evi- 

*  These  suggestions  are  adapted  from  Public  Document  No.  51  (1917), 
"Moral  Values  in  Secondary  Education"  (Supt.  of  Documents,  Govt.  Print- 
ing Office,  Washington).  Valuable  material  will  be  found  in  Public  Document 
No.  28,  "The  Social  Studies  in  Secondary  Education";  Sharp:  "Moral  In- 
struction in  the  High  School"  (Univ.  of  Wisconsin  Bui.  No.  303,  High  School 
series  No.  7);  Muzzey:  "  Ethical  Values  in  History"  (Report,  Second  Internal. 
Moral  Ed.  Congress,  p.  109). 


374  APPENDIX 

dences  of  a  growth  in  ethical  insight  and  a  transformation  in  the  al- 
leged character  of  Jehovah  that  keeps  pace  with  that  growth.  Try  to 
find  the  moral  problem  in  each  important  event.  Problems  are  history 
in  the  making,  as  may  easily  be  seen  in  the  case  of  the  ethical  problems 
presented  to  the  Peace  Conference  of  1919.  By  discovering  these  prob- 
lems and  tracing  the  results  of  their  attempted  solutions  clear  light 
may  be  shed  on  the  individual  and  collective  problems  of  to-day. 

In  general  one  may  state  the  major  ethical  conceptions  arising  from 
historical  study  as  follows: 

1.  Social  Heredity:   the  acts  of  one  generation  bear  fruit  for  good 

or  ill  in  the  lives  of  the  generations  that  follow. 

2.  Social  Progress:   prevailing  practices,  in  spite  of  their  long  and 

apparently  secure  intrenchment,  should  and  can  be  changed 
for  the  better. 

3.  Social  Obligation:  people  need  to  participate  in  common  duties 

rather  than  enjoy  special  privileges.  The  undeveloped  are 
to  be  respected  for  their  potential  excellence.  The  highest 
obligation  of  the  more  privileged  is  to  give  the  handicapped 
the  utmost  encouragement  and  help  to  develop  their  own 
unique  talents. 

In  studying  literary  material — and  under  this  head  would  come  the 
Bible  stories,  as  well  as  Psalms,  Prophets,  and  Wisdom  literature — 
bear  in  mind  that  the  essential  function  of  literature  is  to  clarify  and 
enrich  the  understanding  of  life.  We  should  help  our  pupils  discover 
what  objects  of  life  are  most  worth-while,  what  are  the  soundest  stand- 
ards of  success  or  failure,  what  are  the  personal  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  the  noblest  behaviors  and  how  these  obstacles  can  be  overcome.  To 
become  moving  forces  in  their  lives,  the  high  behaviors  with  which 
literature  deals  must  be  genuinely  admired  and  the  low  behaviors  must 
be  genuinely  condemned  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

All  of  this  study  and  reflection  should  issue  in  a  higher  type  of  think- 
ing, and  in  definite  constructive  and  co-operative  service  in  the  home, 
the  school,  and  the  community. 

It  is  the  conviction  of  the  authors  of  this  book  that  Biblical  History, 
studied  and  taught  with  these  aims  and  methods,  not  only  outstrips 
immeasurably  the  text-and-sermonette  methods  that  are  so  often  em- 
ployed in  teaching  the  Bible,  but  ranks  among  the  most  effective  forces 
in  forming  character  and  ideals. 


II.     SUGGESTIONS   FOR   DETAILED   WORK 
Chapter  I 

MAP  WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  1.     Geographical  names  (Hebrew  World). 

Copy  Map  No.  2.     Fertility  (Hebrew  World). 

Construct  a  "Comparative  Area"  map  as  follows:  On  an  outline 
map  of  the  country  where  you  live,  draw  in  red  ink  on  some  convenient 
part  of  it  a  map  of  the  Hebrew  world  on  the  same  scale,  indicating 
only  the  coastlines  and  chief  rivers.  This  will  help  you  realize  the  ac- 
tual size  of  the  Bible  lands. 

Copy  Map  No.  3.     Semitic  Migrations  (Hebrew  World). 

TOPICS 

The  Arabian  Desert.  The  Nile.  Nomads.  The  role  of  Syria  (see 
G.  A.  Smith:  Hist.  Geog.  of  the  Holy  Land,  chap.  I).  Our  debt  to  the 
Hebrew  world. 

Chapter  II 

MAP    WORK 

On  a  map  of  the  Hebrew  world,  indicate  in  red  ink  the  places  that 
have  contributed  especially  to  our  knowledge  of  the  past.  Use  any 
atlas,  and  designate  on  the  map  the  places  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

TOPICS 

Date  of  the  earliest  historical  records.  What  Napoleon  did  for 
Egypt.  How  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  enriched  our  knowledge  of  ancient 
life.  Learned  societies  that  have  excavated  in  Bible  lands.  Hi- 
eroglyphic writing.    Cuneiform  writing. 

Chapter  III 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

Note:  The  proper  names  appearing  after  the  following  Biblical 
references  are  those  that  should  be  especially  remembered.     Others 

375 


376  APPENDIX 

found  in  the  text  may  be  ignored.    Look  up  all  places  on  a  map.    The 

number  before  each  reference  is  the  section  number  of  the  text  illus- 
trated by  the  Biblical  reference. 

17a.  The  Hebrew  Bondage.  Ex.16"22.  Egypt,  Pi  thorn,  Raamses  (Ram- 
ses and  Rameses  are  the  Egyptian  and  English  forms  of  the 
same  name),  Joseph,  Pharaoh. 

176.  The  Early  Life  of  Moses.  Ex.  21"24.  Pharaoh's  daughter,  Moses, 
Midian. 

17c.     The  Call  of  Moses.     Ex.  S1-^20.     Jethro,  Horeb,  Jehovah,  Aaron. 

17a".     Demands  upon  Pharaoh.    Ex.  427 — 61;   77"13. 

\7e.      The  Ten  Plagues.     Ex.  714-1136.    Goshen,  Red  Sea. 

(1)  Water  becomes  blood,  714"25;  (2)  Frogs,  81"16;  (3)  Lice, 
gie-19.  (4)  FHes,  820"32;  (5)  Murrain,  91"7;  (6)  Boils,  98"12;  (7) 
Hail,  913"35;  (8)  Locusts,  103"20;  (9)  Darkness,  1021"29;  (10) 
Death  of  first-born,  ll1"8-  29"3«. 

17/.      The  Passover  Instituted.     Ex.  121"14-  21"28. 

17^.     The  Escape.     Ex.  1237'39;   1317-152.     Philistines. 


Ramses  II.  Abu  Simbel  (collect  all  possible  pictures).  The  mod- 
ern celebration  of  the  Passover.  The  Land  of  Goshen.  How  many 
Hebrews  left  Egypt?  Collect  all  possible  pictures  (real  and  ideal)  on 
the  Egyptian  sojourn  of  the  Hebrews,  beginning  with  the  story  of 
Joseph,  Gen.  37.  What  did  the  stay  in  Midian  do  for  Moses?  The 
Magicians  of  Egypt.  (See  Erman,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt,  353-6,  373-4, 
or  Budge,  Egyptian  Magic.) 


Chapter  IV 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

24a.     The  Beginnings  of  Organization.    Ex.  181"27. 

246.     Ceremonies  about  Sinai-Horeb.     (1)  The  Blood  Covenant,   Ex. 

241-iij    (2)   Giving  of  the  Law;   the  Great  Apostasy.  Ex. 

2412-18.    3ii8_3235;   341-8.  28-30.    (3)   The   Earlest  Decalogue, 

Ex.  3414"26.    Compare  the  Latest  Decalogue,  Ex.  203"17. 
25.       Spies  Sent  to  Canaan.     Num.  131"2-   17"33;    141"10-  2°-30.     Canaan, 

Hebron,  Kadesh,  Joshua,  Caleb. 
26a.     Hardships  in  the  Wilderness.     Ex.  161"4'  12"24-  «■  35;    171'7;    Num. 

214"9.     Elim,  Sinai  (Horeb),  Mount  Hor,  Edom. 


APPENDIX  377 

266.  Fights  with  Bedouin  and  Others.  Ex.  178"16;  Num.  211"3.  Amale- 
kites,  Canaanites. 

27a.  The  Advance  to  the  East-Jordan  Country.  Num.  2014"21;  21 10-20. 
Arnon,  Pisgah  (Nebo). 

276.  The  Conquest  of  the  East-Jordan  Country.  Num.  2121"35;  Deut. 
232-35.  33-11.  Num.  321"7-  16"19-  **•  »»*  Sihon,  Jabbok,  Am- 
monites, Bashan,  Og,  Gilead,  Rabbah. 

27c.     Balaam's  Prophecy.     Num.  22-24.     Balaam. 

27a\     Joshua  Appointed  Leader.     Num.  2712"23.     Joshua. 

28.  The  Death  of  Moses;  His  Character.  Deut.  341"12.  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob. 

MAP    WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  4.     The  Wilderness  Wanderings  (Sirmi  Peninsula). 

TOPICS 

From  the  two  Decalogues  alone,  what  do  you  discover  about  the 
manner  of  life  of  the  Hebrews  and  their  degree  of  civilization  ?  Giants. 
Are  the  Ten  Commandments  still  binding?  What  wrong  acts  are  not 
forbidden  by  the  Ten  Commandments?  The  spirit  of  the  Hebrews  in 
the  wilderness.  The  distance  from  Goshen  to  Mount  Nebo.  Did 
Moses  deserve  to  be  shut  out  of  the  Promised  Land?  Give  reasons 
for  your  conclusion.  Learn  Mrs.  Alexander's  poem,  "The  Burial  of 
Moses."  How  does  Moses  rank  with  Julius  Caesar,  Washington,  Lin- 
coln, Napoleon? 

Chapter  V 

MAP    WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  5  in  colors  (Palestine). 

After  studying  the  cross-section  at  the  bottom  of  the  map,  make  a 
cross-section  of  Palestine  running  north  and  south,  including  Nazareth 
and  Hebron. 

Construct  a  map  of  comparative  distances  (Palestine),  as  follows: 

In  the  margin  of  your  outline  map  of  Palestine,  write  the  following 
numbers  and  places,  with  the  air-line  distance  between  each  place  and 
Jerusalem.  1.  Jerusalem;  2.  Bethlehem,  6  miles;  3.  Hebron,  20 
miles;  4.  Beersheba,  47  miles;  5.  Jericho,  15  miles;  6.  Mount  Nebo, 
32  miles;    7.  Bethel,  10  miles;    8.  Shechem,  30  miles;    9.  Joppa,  36 


378  APPENDIX 

miles;  10.  Nazareth,  65  miles;  11.  Capernaum,  80  miles;  12.  Mount 
Hermon,  (summit)  120  miles;  13.  Damascus,  137  miles.  On  the 
map,  with  the  numbers  representing  these  places  in  their  correct 
position  connect  the  places  with  Jerusalem  by  means  of  straight 
lines. 

Insert  with  red  ink  in  the  margin  opposite  No.  1.  (Jerusalem),  the 
name  of  the  capital,  or  the  chief  city,  of  your  state  or  shire;  and  op- 
posite each  of  the  other  numbers  write  the  name  of  the  town  in  your 
state  that  is  as  far  from  that  city  as  the  Palestinian  town  is  distant 
from  Jerusalem.  You  have  in  this  way  superimposed  your  state  upon 
Palestine. 

TOPICS 

Roman  cities  east  of  Jordan.  Traces  of  volcanic  action  in  Palestine. 
The  plain  of  Esdraelon.  Harbors  on  the  Palestine  coast.  (See  Smith, 
Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  for  all  of  these.) 

Chapter  VT 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

35a.  The  Summons  to  Conquest.  Josh.  I1"11.  Jordan,  Lebanon,  Eu- 
phrates, Hittites. 

356.     Spies  at  Jericho.     Josh.  2124.     Jericho,  Rahab. 

35c.  Crossing  the  Jordan.  Josh.  31-  14"17;  41"9-  17"24;  51-  «-".  Salt  Sea, 
Arabah,  Gilgal. 

35c?.     The  Capture  of  Jericho.     Josh.  6. 

36a.     The  Sin  of  Achan.     Josh.  7.     Ai,  Bethel,  Achan. 

366.     The  Capture  of  Ai.    Josh.  S1"20. 

36c.      The  Stratagem  of  the  Gibeonites.     Josh.  93"27.     Gibeon. 

36o\  The  League  of  the  Five  Kings.  Josh.  101"27.  Jerusalem,  Lachish, 
Beth-horon,  Ajalon. 

36e.  The  Defeat  of  Jabin.  Josh.  II1"12.  Chinneroth  (Chinnoreth), 
Hermon,  Dor,  Waters  of  Merom,  Sidon,  Jabin. 

37a.     A  General  Summary  of  Conquests.     Josh.  II16"23. 

376.     Joshua's  Farewell  and  Death.    Josh.  231'3-  «*■«• 19"31.     Shechem. 

MAP    WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  6.     Final  Home  of  Hebrew  Tribes  {Palestine). 
The  following  method  will  simplify  the  work: 


APPENDIX  379 

1.  With  a  blue  crayon  draw  a  line  marking  the  limit  of  the  Hebrew- 
possessions.  With  the  same  crayon,  put  in  the  numbers  that  indicate 
the  location  of  each  Hebrew-  tribe,  and  make  a  circle  round  each  num- 
ber. Now  fill  in  all  the  Hebrew-  space  with  solid  color,  leaving  white 
all  the  spaces  within  the  blue  circles. 

2.  In  the  same  manner  indicate  with  other  colors  the  territory  of 
the  Philistines,  Canaanites,  Amalekites,  Edomites,  Moabites,  Am- 
monites, and  Arameans. 

3.  In  any  blank  space  left,  write  with  ink  the  key  to  the  numbers 
and  colors. 

TOPICS 
The  history  of  Jericho.     Early  methods  of  warfare  (see  Hastings, 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  IV,  893-5).     Compare  Joshua  with  Moses,  or 
with  some  other  historical  character.     Canaan  before  the  coming  of  the 
Hebrews  (see  Barton,  Archceology  and  the  Bible,  pp.  307-S,  344-51). 

Chapter  VII 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

41.  The  Moabite  Oppression.     Judges  312"30.     Eglon,  Ehud. 

42.  The  Canaanite  Oppression.     Judges  5  (compare  Judges  4).     Deb- 

orah, Barak,  Sisera. 

43.  The  Midianite  Oppression.     Judges  6-8.     Gideon,  Baal,  valley 

of  Jezreel,  spring  of  Harod. 
The  House  of  Gideon.     Judges  822-927.     Abimelech,  Jotham. 

44.  The  Ammonite  Oppression.     Judges  106,  7*  17' 18;   ll1-^7.    Jeph- 

thah,  Gilead. 
45—46.     The  Philistine  Oppression.     Judges  13-16. 

The  Samson   Stories:    (1)  Birth,    131"25;    (2)  Betrothal,   141- 
158;     (3)  Revenge,   IS9"20;     (4)  The  Gates  of  Gaza,   161"3; 
(5)  Marriage  to  Delilah,   164"22;    (6)  Capture  and  Death, 
1623"31.     Samson,  Zorah,  Delilah,  Gaza. 
40a.     The  Sanctuary  of  Micah.     Judges  17.     Micah. 
406.     The  Migration  of  tJie  Danites.     Judges  18.     Danites. 
40c.      The  Story  of  Ruth.     Ruth  1-4.     Ruth,  Naomi,  Boaz,  Bethlehem. 
39.       Social  and  Religions  Conditions. 

New  occupations:  Judges  63-  »;  82;  927;  98-  10;  l16;  1514;  64. 
New  arts:  Judges  174;  Joshua  228;  Judges  824;  619;  716;  1613- 14. 
The  relation  of  the  arts  to  success  in  w-ar;   Judges  l19;  I  Sam. 
1319-a 


380  APPENDIX 

Dwellings:  Joshua  227b;  Judges  208.  Contrast  with  Cana- 
anite  dwellings;  Judges  950"52;  817;  l27-29.  Recall  the  results 
of  the  excavations  at  Jericho. 

Intermingling  of  the  two  races:  Judges  1911"15. 

Government:    In  Amorite  towns,  Judges  814;  Joshua  103. 
In  Hebrew  settlements,  Judges  202;    11*-";  830-31;  91"4;    176. 
Recall  the  nature  of  the  "Judges."    The  judge  merges  into 
the  king  or  national  leader  and  counsellor  (cf.  Gideon). 

Moral  Standards :  Deeds  that  pass  uncondemned,  315;  154"8,  15; 

1630.     §21.      16.  7.     g!6.      1825-27,       VoWS,    ll30'  »J     2118"21. 

Religion:  The  use  of  old  Canaanite  sanctuaries,  Judges  21"3. 
Names  that  suggest  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  people,  Judges 
7la;  II  Sam.  4la  (cf.  I  Chron.  833)  II  Sam.  44  end  (cf.  I  Chron. 
834).  Jehovah  and  Baal  confused,  Hos.  216"17.  Ritual,  Joshua 
181;  Judges  624"25;  2426;  628;  96;  1819  (cf.  I  Sam.  I24-25); 
jpi-39  Private  religious  shrines,  Judges  175;  827.  Ideas 
about  God,  Judges  ll23"24;  54-  5;  6U-  14;  133;  520;  Joshua 
10";  Judges  l19;   211-  12. 

MAP    WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  7.     Contour  map  of  Galilee  (Esdraelon). 

Copy  Map  No.  8.     Battle  of  the  Kishon  (Esdraelon). 

The  Canaanites  were  lowlanders.  Their  rallying-point  is  indicated 
by  the  dotted  lines  that  centre  on  Harosheth.  Use  solid  line  to  indicate 
their  march.  Find  in  Judges  513"18  the  names  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  that 
fought.  Use  dotted  lines  to  show  their  assembling  on  Mount  Tabor 
and  a  solid  line  to  show  their  attack. 

Copy  Map  No.  9.     Wars  of  Oppression  (Small  Palestine). 


The  Philistines.  A  day  in  old  Shechem.  Are  wicked  nations  always 
punished  ?  Compare  Samson  and  Hercules.  Nazarites.  Why  should 
the  book  of  Ruth  be  in  the  Bible?  Riddles  (see  Hastings,  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible,  IV,  270-1). 

Chapter  VIII 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

49a.     The  Early  Life  of  Samuel.     I  Sam.  1-3.     Hannah,  Eli,  Shiloh, 

Samuel,  Ramah. 
48.       Adventures  of  the  Ark.     I  Sam.  4!-72a.     Ekron,  Ashdod,  Gath. 


APPENDIX  381 

496.     Samuel  Inspires  Saul.     I  Sam.  91— 1016.     Saul. 

50.  Saul  Proves  his  Leadership.     I  Sam.  11.     Jabesh-Gilead. 

51.  The    Deliverance  from    the    Philistines.     I  Sam.    131"7,    1Bb-1432. 

Michmash,  Jonathan. 

52.  Saul's  Break  with  Samuel.     I  Sam.   108;    137"15   {cf.  chap.   15). 

Agag,  Amalekites. 

53a.     Rise  of  David,     (a)  I  Sam.    1614"23;     (6)  17;  (c)  161'13.     Jesse, 
David,  Goliath,  Abner. 

536.  David's    Popularity    and    Saul's    Jealousy.  I   Sam.     181— 1917. 

Michal. 
53c.     David  a  Fugitive.     I  Sam.  1918-218;   221"5;   2315"18.     Nob,  Adul- 

lam. 
53d.     Saul's  Vengeance  on  the  Priests  of  Nob.  I  Sam.  226"23. 
53c     Said's  Pursuit  of  David.     I  Sam.  2314>  19"29;   24;   26.     Engedi. 
53/.     David  and  Abigail.     I  Sam.  252-42.     Nabal,  Abigail. 
53<7.     David  Among  the  Philistines.     I  Sam.  2110~15;    27.     Achish. 
5Sh.     David  and  the  Philistine  Invasion.     I  Sam.  281, 2;   29. 

537.  David  Raids  the  Amalekites.     I  Sam.  30. 

54a.     Saul's  Visit  to  the  Medium  of  Endor.     I  Sam.  283"25.     Endor. 
546.     Defeat  and  Death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan.     I  Sam.  31.     Mount 
Gilboa,  Bethshan. 

MAP  WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  10.     Saul's  Kingdom  (Small  Palestine). 
Copy  Map  No.  11.     Battle  of  Mount  Gilboa  (Esdraelon). 

TOPICS 

The  History  of  the  Ark.  "Seers"  in  the  Bible.  Compare  David  the 
outlaw  with  Robin  Hood.  The  harp  among  the  Hebrews.  A  day 
with  David.  Write  a  story  (in  the  first  person)  connecting  Jabesh- 
Gilead  and  Saul.  The  character  of  Jonathan.  Hebrew  laws  about 
mediums  and  sorcerers. 

Chapter  IX 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

56a.     David  Hears  of  Said's  Death.     II  Sam.  1. 

566.      The  States  Ruled  by  David  and  Ishbaal.     II  Sam.  21"11.     Ishbaal 

(Ishbosheth),  Abner,  Mahanaim. 
56c.     Hostilities  between  the  States.     II  Sam.  212-3!.     Joab. 
56d.     Abner 's  Disaffection  and  Death.     II  Sam.  36"39. 


382  APPENDIX 

56e.      The  Assassination  of  Ishhaal.     II  Sam.  4. 

56/.     David  Made  Ruler  of  All  Israel.     II  Sam.  51"5. 

58a.     War  with  the   Philistines.     II   Sam.  517"25;    81;    2115"22;    2313"17. 

Valley  of  Rephaim. 
586.     David    Captures    Jerusalem.     II    Sam.    56"12.     Jebusites.    Zion, 

Hiram,  Tyre. 

59.  David's  Wars  of  Conquest.     II  Sam.  82"14;   lO^ll1;   1226"31.    Syr- 

ians, Damascus. 

60.  David's  Mighty  Men.     II  Sam.  23«-38. 

61.  David's  Court.     II  Sam.  815"18;   2023"25. 

62.  David  Rescues  the  Ark.     II  Sam.  6.     Uzzah. 

MAP   WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  12.     The  Philistine  Conquest  (Small  Palestine). 

Copy  Map  No.  13.     Empires,  Time  of  David  (Hebrew  World). 

Copy  Map  No.  14.  Early  Jerusalem.  (Jerusalem.)  Before  copy- 
ing, study  carefully  the  contour  lines  in  order  to  fix  in  mind  the  loca- 
tion of  the  hills  and  valleys.  It  may  be  advisable  to  color  or  shade  a 
separate  outline  map  in  order  to  bring  out  elevations.  On  cross-section 
paper  profiles  may  be  drawn  to  vertical  and  horizontal  scale  with  good 
effect. 

TOPICS 

Jerusalem  in  the  Tel  el-Amarna  letters.  David's  character  during 
his  rule  over  Judah.  Compare  Abner  and  Joab.  Learn  the  elegy 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan. 

Chapter  X 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

63.  David's  Crime  and  Punishment.     II  Sam.  ll2-^35.     Bathsheba, 

Uriah,  Nathan. 
64-6.  Absalom's  Rebellion.     Absalom,  Ahithophel,  Hushai,  Mount  of 

Olives. 
(1)  His  early  crime  and  flight,  II  Sam.  1333"39;   (2)  his  return, 

141"24;    (3)   his   ambition,   1425-156;     (4)   his  revolt,   157"12; 

(5)  David's  flight,   1513-1614;    (6)  divided  counsels,  1615"23; 

(7)  the   battle,    Absalom's    death,    1724-1833;     (8)    David's 

mistakes,  19. 
67a.     The  Sons  of  Saul  Executed.     II  Sam.  211"14.     Rizpah. 


APPENDIX  383 

676.     The  Census  and  Preparation  for  the  Temple.     II  Sam.  24.    Beer- 

sheba,  Gad,  Araunah. 
68a.     Adonijah's  Ambition.     I  Kings  1.     Adonijah,  Solomon,  Gihon. 
686.     David's  Sickness  and  Death.     I  Kings  21"11. 

TOPICS 

The  causes  of  Absalom's  wickedness.  Read  Tennyson's  "Rizpah." 
Why  is  David  reckoned  Israel's  best  ruler  ?    David's  religion. 

Chapter  XI 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

70.       Solomon  Removes  His  Opponents.     I  Kings  212"46. 
72  (S2.)     The   Loss  of  Provinces;    Jeroboam's  First  Revolt.     I  Kings 
ll14'40.     Jeroboam,  Ahijah,  Shishak. 

73.  The  Organization  and  Resources  of  Solomon's  Kingdom.     I  Kings 

41-28.   915-25.     Gezer,  Millo. 

74.  Solomon's    Building    Enterprises.     I    Kings    51— 751.     Lebanon, 

Joppa. 

76.  The  Dedication  of  the  Temple.     I  Kings  8. 

77.  High    Finance.     I    Kings    910"14-  26"28;    lO11'29.      Galilee,    Eloth 

(Elath),  Ophir,  Tarshish. 
78a.     Solomon's  Wisdom.     I  Kings  34"28;   429"34. 
786.     The  Visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba.     I  Kings  101"10'  13.     Queen  of 

Sheba. 

79.  Solomon's  Polygamy  and  Idolatry.     I  Kings  31"3;   ll1"13. 

80.  Solomon's  Death.     I  Kings  ll41"43. 

TOPICS 

Solomon  the  Magician  in  Hebrew  and  Arabic  story.  The  arts  of 
Phoenicia.  Queen  of  Sheba  stories  in  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  The  proverbs 
of  Solomon.  Early  ships.  How  much  of  the  world  was  known  in  Solo- 
mon's day? 

Chapter  XII 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

81.  The  Rebellion  of  the  Northern  Tribes.     I  Kings  121"26.     Rehoboam, 

Shechem. 
84.       Rehoboam' s  Reign;    the  Invasion  of  Shishak.     I  Kings  1421"31. 
85a.     Jeroboam's  Sanctuaries.     I  Kings  1226"33. 


384  APPENDIX 

Sob.     Jeroboam's  Death.     I  Kings  1419-  20. 

86.       The  Attitude  of  the  Prophets  Toward  Jeroboam.    I  Kings  lS1-^18. 

MAP    WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  15.     The  Divided  Kingdom  (Small  Palestine). 


Animal-worship  among  the  Hebrews.  Was  Jeroboam  an  idolater? 
Compare  the  results  of  the  division  in  Israel  with  those  in  the  United 
States  in  1861. 

Chapter  XIII 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

87.  The  Petty  Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah.     I  Kings  151-1620.     Baasha, 

Zimri,  Asa,  Benhadad  I. 

88.  The  Reign  of  Omri.     I  Kings  1621"28.     Omri,  Samaria. 

91.  The  Reign  of  Ahab.     I  Kings  162j-34.     Ahab,  Jezebel,  Ethbaal. 

92.  Jehoshaphat  of  Judah.     I  Kings  2241"50.     Jehoshaphat. 

93.  Ahab's  Wars.     I  Kings  20. 

94.  Ahab's  Death.     I  Kings  221"40.     Ramoth  Gilead. 

MAP   WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  16.     The  Kingdom  of  Omri  and  Ahab  (Palestine). 

TOPICS 

The  capitals  of  Israel.  Ahab  as  a  statesman.  The  inscription  on 
the  Moabite  Stone  (see  Barton,  Archaeology  and  the  Bible,  pp.  363-5). 
What  light  does  the  following  inscription  of  Shalmaneser  II,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  battle  of  Karkar  (854  B.C.),  throw  on  Ahab's  position  in 
western  Asia? 

"One  thousand  two  hundred  chariots,  1,200  horsemen,  20,000  men 
of  Dad'idri  (Benhadad  II)  of  Damascus;  700  chariots,  700  horsemen, 
10,000  soldiers  of  Irhulini  of  Hamath;  2,000  chariots,  10,000  soldiers 
of  Ahab  of  Israel;  500  soldiers  of  Guai;  10,000  soldiers  of  the  land  of 
Mucri;  10  chariots,  10,000  soldiers  of  the  land  of  Irkanat;  200  soldiers 
of  Mattan-baal  of  Arrad;  200  soldiers  of  the  land  of  Usanata;  30 
chariots,  10,000  soldiers  of  Adoni-baal  of  Shiana;  1,000  camels  of  Gin- 
dibu  of  Arba  .  .  .  1,000  soldiers  of  the  Ammonite,  Basa,  son  of  Rehob; 
these  twelve  kings  he  (Irkanat)  took  to  help  him.    For  battle  and  com- 


APPENDIX  385 

bat  they  advanced  against  me.  .  .  .  From  Karkar  to  Gilzan  I  effected 
their  defeat.  Fourteen  thousand  of  their  troops  with  weapons  I  slew; 
like  Adar  (the  storm-god)  I  rained  down  a  flood  upon  them;  I  scattered 
their  corpses;  ...  I  took  possession  of  the  river  Orontes."  This  is 
the  earliest  mention  of  Israel  in  the  annals  of  Assyria. 

Chapter  XIV 

LABORATORY  -MATERIAL 

97a.  Elijah  Announces  a  Drought.     I  Kings  17.    Cherith,  Zarephath. 

976.  Elijah's  Victory  at  Mount  Carmel.    I    Kings  IS.    Mount  Carmel. 

97c.  Elijah's  Flight  and  Wilderness  Experience.    I  Kings  191"18. 

97d.  The  Call  of  Elisha.    I  Kings  1919-21.     Elisha. 

98.  Xaboth's  Vineyard.     I  Kings  21.     Naboth,  Jezreel. 

99a.  Attempts  to  Capture  Elijah.    II  Kings  1.    Ahaziah. 

996.  Elijah's  Translation.     II  Kings  2. 

MAP  WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  16.     Elijah's  Journeys  (Palestine). 

TOPICS 

Compare  Jezebel  and  Lady  Macbeth.    Phoenician  colonies. 
Chapter  XV 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

100a.     The  Reign  of  Ahaziah.    I  Kings  2251"53. 

1006.      The  Reign  of  Jehoram.     II  Kings  31"3.     Jehoram. 

100c.      The  Reign  of  Joram.     II  Kings  816"24.    Joram  (Jehoram). 

100o\     The  Reign  of  Ahaziah  of  Judah.    II  Kings  825"29;  927"29.    Ahaziah. 

101a.     Elisha  as  Wonder-Worker. 

(1)  The  widow's  oil,  II  Kings  4W.  (2)  Miraculous  food,  II 
Kings  438"44.  Gilgal.  (3)  The  recovery  of  lost  axe,  II  Kings 
6W.  (4)  The  restoration  of  Shunammite's  son,  II  Kings 
48"37.  Shunem,  Gehazi.  (5)  The  restoration  of  Shunam- 
mite's land,  II  Kings  81"6.  (6)  The  healing  of  Naaman  the 
leper,  II  Kings  5.     Naaman. 

1016.     Elisha  as  Counsellor. 

(1)  The  war  with  Moab,  II  Kings  34"27.  Mesha.  (2)  The 
deception  of  Arameans,  II  Kings  68"23.  Dothan.  (3)  The 
siege  and  deliverance  of  Samaria,  II  Kings  624-720. 


386  APPENDIX 

102.  Elisha  as  Revolutionist. 

(1)  Elisha  and  Hazael,  II  Kings  87"15.     Hazael.     (2)  Elisha 
and  Jehu,  II  Kings  91"3.     Jehu. 

103.  The  Revolution  of  Jehu.     II  Kings  9. 

105.  The  Usurpation  of  Athaliah.     II  Kings  ll1"3.     Athaliah. 

106:  Jehu's  Bloody  Slaughter.     II  Kings  101"31. 

108.  The  Revolution  in  Judah.     II  Kings  ll4"20.     Jehoiada. 

109a.  Jehu's  Reign.     II  Kings  1032"36. 

1096.  Elisha's  Farewell  and  Death.     II  Kings  1314"21.     Joash. 

TOPICS 

The  "Schools  of  the  Prophets."  Contrast  Elijah  and  Elisha.  Was 
Jehu  justified  in  his  revolution?  The  Black  Obelisk  of  Shalmaneser 
III. 

Chapter  XVI 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

110.       The  Reign  of  Joash  (Jehoash).     II  Kings  1121-1221.     Joash. 
Ilia.     The  Reign  of  Jehoahaz.    II  Kings  131"9.    Jehoahaz.Benhadad  III. 
1116.      The  Reign  of  Jehoash.     II  Kings  1310"13'  22"25;    148"16.     Jehoash, 

Amaziah. 
111c.      The  Reign  of  Amaziah.     II  Kings  141"14-  17"21.     Azariah. 

112.  The  Reign  of  Uzziah  (Azariah).     II  Kings  1422;    151"7.     Uzziah, 

Jotham. 

113.  The  Reign  of  Jeroboam  II.     II  Kings  1423~29.     Jeroboam  II. 
115a.     Amos.     26"16;    54"15-  *■-*;    61"8. 

1156.     Rosea.     41"14. 

MAP   WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  17.     The  Syrian  Domination  (Small  Palestine). 
Copy  Map  No.  18.    Assyrian  Advance,  Waves  I  to  III  (Hebrew  World). 
Copy  Map  No.  19.     Israel's  Indian  Summer  (Hebrew  World). 

TOPICS 

Damascus  past  and  present.  A  day  with  Amos  at  Bethel.  Lepers. 
Tekoa  (see  G.  A.  Smith,  Book  of  the  Twelve  Prophets,  I,  74-81). 


APPENDIX  387 

Chapter  XVII 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

116a.     The  Reign  of  Zechariah.     II  Kings  158"12.     Zechariah,  Shallum. 

1166.      The  Reign  of  Shallum.     II  Kings  1513"16.     Menahem. 

117a.     The  Reign  of  Menahem.     II  Kings  1517"22.     Pul  (Tiglath-pileser 

IV). 
1176.     The  Reign  of  Pekahiah.     II  Kings  1523"26.     Pekah. 
118a.     The  Reign  of  Jot  ham.     II  Kings  1532"38.     Rezin. 
1186.      The  Reign  of  Ahaz.     II  Kings  16;   Isaiah  71"17.     Ahaz,  Isaiah. 
119a.     The  Reign  of  Pekah.     II  Kings  1527"31.     Hoshea. 
1196.      The  Reign  of  Hoshea.     II  Kings  171"6.     Shalmaneser  III,  Sar- 

gon. 

120.  The  Explanation  of  Israel's  Downfall.     II  Kings  177"18. 

MAP   WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  20.  Assyrian  Advance,  Waves  IV-VI  (Hebrew 
World). 

TOPICS 

Compare  the  fate  of  Israel  with  that  of  Belgium  or  Serbia  in  the 
Great  War.     Human  sacrifice  among  the  Hebrews. 

Chapter  XVIII 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

121.  The  Reign  of  Hezekiah.     II  Kings  181"8;    202°-21.     Hezekiah. 

123.  Isaiah's  Warnings  Against  Egypt.     Isaiah  311"3. 

124.  Hezekiah 's  Sickness  and  the  Embassy  from  Babylon.     II  Kings 

201"19.     Merodach-baladan. 
125a.     Sennacherib's  First  Invasion.     II  Kings  1813"16.     Sennacherib. 
1256.     A  Psalm  of  Deliverance.     Psalm  46. 

TOPICS 

Isaiah's  methods  of  publicity.  How  the  Assyrians  made  war.  From 
the  inscription  on  Sennacherib's  cylinder  (see  Barton,  Archaeology  and 
the  Bible,  pp.  372-3),  construct  a  map  of  his  conquests  (Hebrew  World). 
Compare  Isaiah's  call  with  that  of  Moses  and  Joan  of  Arc. 


388  APPENDIX 

Chapter  XIX 

LABORATORY    MATERIAL 

129-130.      The  Great  Reformation.     II  Kings  1816;  Micah,  Isaiah. 
131.     Sennacherib's  Second  Invasion.     II  Kings  1817-1937. 


Compare  Isaiah  with  any  of  the  earlier  prophets.  Micah  as  a  "Red." 
The  overthrow  of  Sennacherib's  army.  (See  the  account  of  Herodotus 
as  given  in  Barton,  Archaeology  and  the  Bible,  p.  376,  and  compare  the 
last  sentence  with  section  4S  of  this  book.) 

Chapter  XX 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

133.       The  Reign  of  Manasseh.     II  Kings  211"18.     Manasseh. 

TOPICS 

Assyrian  religion.  The  Library  of  Ashurbanipal.  Ishtar  and  her 
equivalents  in  other  religions. 

Chapter  XXI 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

139.       The  Reign  of  Amon.     II  Kings  2119"26.     Amon,  Josiah. 

141.       The  Reign  of  Josiah.     II  Kings  22L-2327.     Tophet,  Valley  of 

Hinnom. 
143.       Selections  from  Deideronomy.     Deut.  121'4:  13- 14' 27;  IT2"7;  1018'19; 

257-15.   2315"16,  19-20.   228_   246,  10"22,   254. 
147a.     The  Death  of  Josiah.     II  Kings  2328"30.     Pharaoh-Necho. 
1476.      The  Everlasting  Arms.     Psalm  90. 

MAP  work 
Copy  Map  No.  21.     The  Break-up  of  Assyria  (Hebrew  World). 

TOPICS 

Deuteronomy:  its  authorship* and  literary  form.  Slavery  in  Deu- 
teronomy.    Relations  of  rich  and  poor  in  Deuteronomy. 


APPENDIX  389 

Chapter  XXII 

LABORATORY    MATERIAL 

148a.     The  Reign  of  Jehoahaz.     II  Kings  2331"35.     Jehoahaz,  Jehoiakim. 

1486.      The  Reign  of  Jehoiakim      II  Kings  2336-247.     Nebuchadrezzar. 

149.       The  Fall  of  Nineveh.     Nahum  3. 

151a.     Jeremiah's  Preaching  and  Trial.    Jer.  26.     Jeremiah. 

1516.     Jeremiah's  Roll  and  its  Reception.    Jer.  36.     Baruch. 

152.       The  Reign  of  Jehoiachin:  The  First  Deportation.    II  Kings  24817. 

Jehoiachin. 
154.       The  Reign  of  Zedekiah :  his  Rebellion.     II  Kings  2418-252.  Ezek. 

19.     Zedekiah,  Chaldeans. 
155a.     The  Perfidy  of  the  Hebrews  During  the  Siege.     Jer.  34. 
1556.     Jeremiah's  Arrest  and  Deliverance.     Jer.  37-38;   3915"18. 
156.       The  Second  Capture  of  Jerusalem.     II  Kings  253"21. 
157a.     The  Treatment  of  Jeremiah  by  the  Babylonians.     Jer.  39u-406. 
1576.     The  Governorship  of  Gedaliah.     II  Kings  2S22-26.     Jer.  407-4118. 

Gedaliah,  Mizpah. 

MAP    WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  22.     The  Babylonian  Conquest  (Hebrew  World). 

TOPICS 

Nineveh.  The  Scythians.  Modern  excavations  at  Nineveh.  The 
sieges  and  destructions  of  Jerusalem.  (See  G.  A.  Smith,  Jerusalem, 
vol.  II,  appendix.)     The  art  of  writing  among  the  Hebrews. 

Chapter  XXIII 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

160.       The  Flight  to  Egypt.     Jer.  43,  44.     Tahpanhes. 

164a.     Ezekiel's  Messages  to  the  Scattered  Exiles.     Ezek.  25,  27,  2Sr 

371'14.     Edom. 
1646.     Poems  of  the  Exile.     Lam.  1-2;  Psalms  130,  137;  Isaiah  21110. 

TOPICS 

The  Book  of  Lamentations.  Ezekiel's  strange  methods  as  preacher. 
(See  Ezek.  41"11,  51"4,  6""12,  121"'2-  "-*>,  171"1  .)  Synagogues.  The 
Papyrus  from  Elephantine  (see  Barton,  Archaeology  and  the  Bible,  pp. 
387-391). 


390  APPENDIX 

Chapter  XXIV 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

170.  The  Decree  of  Cyrus.     Ezra  l1"4,  63"5.     Cyrus,  Darius. 

171.  The  First  Return.     Ezra  l6"11,  5Hi  15. 

172.  Worship  Re-established.     Ezra  3.     Zerubbabel. 

173.  Opposition  to  Rebuilding  the  Temple.     Ezra  4. 

174a.     The  Second  Attempt  to  Rebuild.     Ezra  SMJ15;  Hag.  1.     Haggai, 

Zechariah. 
1746.      The  Dedication  of  the  Temple.     Ezra  616"22. 
176.       Poems  of  the  Second  Temple.     Psalms  84,  85,  87,  93,  95-100. 

MAP    WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  23.     The  Persian  Empire  (Hebrew  World). 

TOPICS 

The  character  of  Cyrus  (see  Xenophon's  Cyropcpdia  and  Herodotus' 
History).     The  Second  Temple. 

Chapter  XXV 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

178.  Nehemiah  to  the  Rescue.    Neh.  l1-220.     Nehemiah,  Artaxerxes. 

1 7'.)c/.  Rebuilding  the  Walls.     Neh.  3-4.     Sanballat. 

1796.  Unsuccessful   Plots   against   Nehemiah.      Neh.    6;     Ezra    47"M. 

Tobiah. 

179c.  Dedication  of  the  Walls.     Neh.  1227"«. 

180a.  Nehemiah' 's  Social  Reforms.     Neh.  5. 

1806.  Nehemiah's  Religious  Reforms.     Neh.  1244-1331. 

182.  Psalms  of  the  Persian  Period.     Psalms  22,  60,  130,  51,  71,  120, 

27,  107,  116. 

183.  The  Second  Isaiah.     Isaiah  401"11,  418"16,  421"13,  431"7,  5213-5312. 

MAP    WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  24.     Time  of  Nehemiah  (Small  Palestine). 
On  an  outline  map  of  modern  Jerusalem,  draw  a  line  in  red  ink  show- 
ing the  position  of  the  city  walls  in  Nehemiah's  time  (Jerusalem). 

TOPIOS 

Susa.     "The  Suffering  Servant  of  Jehovah"  (Is.  5213-5312). 


APPENDIX  391 

Chapter  XXVI 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

189.       The  Patriot-Queen.    Esther.     Ahasuerus.    Mardecai.     Hamon. 
190a.     Joel's  Interpretation  of  a  Public  Calamity.     Joel  l1— 227. 
1906.      The  Coming  "Day  of  Jehovah."     Joel  228-321. 
190c.     The  Mystery  of  Suffering.     Job  (selected  portions,  e.  g.,  chaps. 

1-2,  8-9,  19,  29,  38-42). 
190a\  A  Runaway  Prophet.  Jonah. 
191.       The  Samaritan  Schism.     Josephus:  Antiquities,  XI,  7, 2;   8,2. 

Sanballat  II. 

TOPICS 

Music  among  the  Hebrews.  Musical  hints  in  the  titles  of  Psalms 
(e.  g.,  Ps.  4,  5,  6,  22,  53,  56).  Alphabetical  Psalms  (e.  g.,  Ps.  42-43, 
107,  136).  Is  the  book  of  Esther  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  Bible  ?  The 
moral  and  religious  teachings  of  the  book  of  Jonah.  Nature  in  the 
book  of  Job.  Compare  the  spirit  of  the  book  of  Psalms  with  that  of 
other  ancient  hymns.  (See  Barton,  Archaeology  and  the  Bible,  pp.  398- 
406.) 

Chapter  XXVII 

LABORATORY  MATERIAL 

195a.  The  Jews  under  Greek  Rulers.  I  Mac.  I1"15;  Josephus:  Antiqui- 
ties, XII,  1,  1-4.  Alexander  the  Great,  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes.     II  Mac.  3-4. 

1956.      The  Wise  and  Their  Works.     Prov.  I1"8,  8^9,  30,  31. 

195c.     Experiments  in  Wisdom.     Ecclesiastes  1-2,  ll9"12. 

195a7.  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach.  Ecclesiasticus  l1"10, 
21"9,  317-4,  6.     Ben  Sira. 

195c     Psalms  of  the  Greek  Period.     Psalms  19,  68,  72,  73,  86-89. 

MAP    WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  25.     The  Syrian  Conquest  (Hebrew  World). 

TOPICS 

Josephus  and  his  writings.  Alexandria.  Simon  the  Just.  Antioch. 
Hebrew  wise  men.  The  structure  of  the  book  of  Proverbs.  (See  Kent, 
Makers  and  Teachers  of  Judaism,  pp.  159-167.)    The  plan  of  a  Greek 


392  APPENDIX 

city.     A  day  in  a  Greek  stadium.    The  chief  features  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture.   The  Septuagint.    The  Apoerypha. 

Compare  the  Biblical  proverbs  with  the  Babylonian,  Assyrian,  and 
Egyptian.     (See  Barton,  Archaeology  and  the  Bible,  pp.  407-412.) 


Chapter  XXVIII 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

206.       The  Outrages  of  Antiochus.     I  Mac.  I16'64;    II  Mar.  5-7. 

209a.     Psalms  of  Despair.     Psalms  74,  79,  83. 

209b.     Encouragement    for    a    Persecuted    Nation.     Daniel     (selected 

stories). 
210.       The  Uprising  of  Maitathias.     I  Mac.  2;   II  Mac.  81'7.     Matta- 

thias,  Judas,  Modin. 

212.  J udah's  Victories.     I  Mac.  Sl-4^;  II  Mac.  88"36,  11J-121.     Apol- 

lonius,  Beth-horon,  Emmaus. 

213.  The  Temple  Restored.     I  Mac.  436"61;   II  Mac.  101"9.  Lysias. 

215.  Psalms  of  Victory.     Psalms  110,  115,  118. 

TOPICS 

An  apocalypse.     Judas  Maccabseus  as  a  general. 
Chapter  XXIX 

LABORATORY    .MATERIAL 

216.  Further   Campaigns  of  Judas.     I  Mac.  o'-O63;    II  Mac.  91"29, 

109"38,  12-13.     Idumea,  Galilee. 

217.  Later  Struggles:   Death  of  Judas.     I  Mac.  7'-922;   II  Mac.  141- 

1536.     Nicanor. 
218a.     Jonathan's  Contests  and  Victory.     I  Mac.  923"73.     Jonathan. 
2186.     Jonathan's  Later  Wars.     I  Mac.  lO1-^38. 
21Sc.     The  Death  of  Jonathan.     I  Mac.  1239-1330. 
219.       Siinon's  Prosperous  Reign.     I  Mac.  1331-1624.     Simon. 

221.  Hyrcanus.     Josephus:  War,  I,  2,  3-7;  Antiquities,  XIII,  9,  1; 

10,  5-7.     John  Hyrcanus. 

222.  The  Sects.     Josephus:  Antiquities,  XVIII,  1,  2  4;    War,  II,  8, 

2-14.     Pharisees,  Sadducees. 
223a.     Aristobtdus.     Josephus:  Antiquities,  XIII,  11,  1-3.     Aristobulus. 
2236.     Alexandra  and  her  Sons.     Josephus:    If'ar,  I,  4,  5.     Alexander, 


APPENDIX  393 

MAP    WORK 

Janneus,  Alexandra,  Aristobulus,  Hyrcanus. 
Copy  Map  No.  26.     The  Maccabean  Kingdom  (Small  Palestine). 

TOPICS 

The  Jewish  Sabbath.     Petra.     The  Messianic  Hope. 
Chapter  XXX 

LABORATORY    MATERIAL 

22"».       T lie  Entrance  of  Rome.     Josephus:  War,  I,  6.     Antipater,  Pom- 

pey- 

226.       Pom  pet/  Takes  Jerusalem.     Josephus:   War,  I,  7. 

228.  The  Schemes  of  Antipater.     Josephus:    War,  I,  9,  10.     Julius 

Caesar,  Herod. 

229.  Herod  Favored  by  Rome.     Josephus:  War,  I,  11— IS.     Mark  An- 

tony, Cleopatra,  Octavius  (Augustus). 

TOPICS 

Pompey  in  Syria.  The  Decapolis.  Julius  Caesar  and  the  Jews. 
The  Psalms  of  Solomon. 

Chapter  XXXI 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

232.  Herod's  Personal  Qualities.     Josephus:   War,  I,  21. 

233.  Herod's  Family  Troubles.     Josephus:    War,  I,  22-24,  27-29. 

Mariamne,  Salome. 

234.  Herod's  Political  Shrewdness.     Josephus:   War,  I,  19-20. 

235.  Herod's  Building  Enter  prises.     Josephus:  War, I, 21.     Csesarea. 

237.  The  Temple  of  Herod.     Josephus:   Antiquities,  XV,  11,  1-6. 

238.  Herod's  Last  Years.     Josephus:   War,  I,  30-33. 

MAP    WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  27.     Kingdom  of  Herod  I  (Small  Palestine). 

TOPICS 

Herod's  Palaces.  Mariamne  (see  Stephen  Phillips,  Herod).  Herod 
and  Jesus.  Why  is  Herod  called  Great?  The  book  of  Enoch.  The 
Sibylline  Oracles. 


394  APPENDIX 

Chapter  XXXII 

LABORATORY   MATERIAL 

240.       Herod's  Successors.     Josephus:    War,  II,   1,  2,  6.     Arehelaus, 

Herod  Antipas. 
242.       Paul's  Contacts  with  Roman  Rulers.      Acts  2331-2427,  2(3.      Herod 

Agrippa  II. 
244.       The  Siege  of  Jerusalem.     Josephus:   War,  V,  2-9.     Vespasian, 

Titus. 

MAP   WORK 

Copy  Map  No.  28.     Palestine  under  Hadrian  (Small  Palestine). 

TOPICS 

Roman  methods  of  besieging  a  city.     The  Jerusalem  of  Hadrian. 
CHAPTER  XXXIII 

TOPICS 

Jews  in  Scott's  novels.  Is  Shylock  a  caricature?  The  Jews  in 
Russia.  Zionism.  The  status  of  the  Jew  in  the  treaty  between  the  Al- 
lies and  Poland,  June,  1919. 


III.     MAP   INDEX   OF   IMPORTANT 
GEOGRAPHIC   NAMES 

References  consisting  of  a  letter  and  a  figure  are  to  squares 
on  the  large  inserted  map  of  Palestine.  A  simple  number 
refers  to  the  small  maps  in  the  map  section  of  the  book  im- 
mediately following. 


Acre B3 

Adullam A5 

Ajalon B5 

Amman C5 

Ammon C4-5 

Antioch 25 

Arabia 1 

Arbila  (Arbel) C3 

Armenia 1 

Arnon C6 

Ashdod A5 

Asia  Minor 1 

Ass  yria 3 

Babylon 21 

Babylonia 1 

Banias C2 

Bashan  (Jaulan) C2-3 

Beersheba A6 

Bethel B5 

Beth-boron B5 

Bethlehem B5 

Bethshean B4 

Bethsura  (Bethzur) B5 

Beth  Zacharias B5 

Bitter  Lakes Fig.  19 

Bosra D3 

Csesarea A3 

Cairo Fig.  19 

Canaan 4 

Carchemish 21 

Carmel  (Mt.) AB3 

Chebar    (Babylonian    home    of 

Jews) 22 

Damascus Dl 

Dan .-.  C2 

Dead  Sea B5-6 


Decapolis 27 

Dor A3 

Ebal  (Mt.) B4 

Edom 4 

Edrei D3 

Egypt 1 

Elah  (Valley) AB5 

Elim  (Elath) 4 

Emmaus A8 

En-rogel 4 

Esdraelon B3 

Euphrates  R 1 

Ezion  Geber 14 

Gadara C3 

Galilee B2-3 

Galilee  (Sea  of) C3 

Gath A5 

Gaulonitis  (Jaulan) C2-3 

Gaza A5 

Geba  (Giba) B5 

Gerizim  (Mt.) B4 

Gezer A5 

Gibeon B5 

Gihon 14 

Gilboa  (Mt.) B4 

Gilead 3C-4 

Gilgal B4 

Goshen 4 

Harosheth 8 

Hauran D3 

Hebron B5 

Heliopolis Fijr.  19 

Hermon  (Mt.) C2 

Heshbon C5 

Horeb  (Sinai) 4 

395 


:i96 


MAP    INDEX 


Ibleam B4 

Ismailia Fig.  19 

Jabesh  Gilead C4 

Jabbok CD4 

Jerash C4 

Jericho B5 

Jerusalem B5 

Jezreel B3 

Jordan C2-5 

Judea B5 

Kadesh-Barnea 4 

Kadesh-Naphtali  (Kedes) ....  C2 

Kerak C6 

Kiriath-Jearim B5 

Kishon B3 

Lachish A5 

Lebanon  (Mts.) Cl 

Mahanaim 12 

Media 21 

Mediterranean Al-4 

Megiddo B3 

Memphis Fig.  19 

Merom,  Waters  of  (Lake  Hu- 

leh) C2 

Mesopotamia 1 

Michmash B5 

Midian 4 

Migdol  (Refugees  in  Egypt) . .  22 

Mizpah B5 

Moab C5-6 

Modin B5 

Moriah  (Mt.) 14 

Nebo  (Mt.) Co 

Nile  R 1 

Nineveh 21 


Olives.  Mt.  of B5 

Orontes  R 1 

Palestine 1 

Persia 1 

Persian  Gulf 1 

Philistia A5 

Phoenicia Bl-2 

Pithom 4 

Raamses 4 

Rabboth Co 

Red  Sea 1 

Samaria B4 

Seir  (Mt.) 4 

Sepphoris B3 

Shiloh B4 

Shunem B3 

Sidon Bl 

Sinai  (Mt.) 4 

Suez  Canal Fig.  19 

S  yria 1 

Taanach B3 

Tabor  (Mt.) B3 

Tahpanhes  (Refugees  in  Egypt)  22 

Tiberias C3 

Tigris  R 1 

Timnath A5 

Tirzah 15 

Tyre B2 

Wadi  Tumilat Fig.  19 

Yarmuk A3 

Zagros  Mts 1 


-1000  miles  -  San  Francisco  to  E.  border  of  New  Mexico- 
Map  No.  1— GEOGRAPHICAL  NAMES 


Map   Xo.  2— FERTILITY 


-  BABYLONIANS 
3500-2500  B.C. 


ARABIANS 
From  earliest  times  to  the 
present.     Source  of  all  (?J 
the  Semitic  peoples 


AMORITES.  earliest  waves,  going 
largely  north  and  east,  and  becoming 
BABYLONIANS  and  ASSYRIANS 
AMORITES.  later  waves,  going 
south  and  west,  and  becoming 
ARAMEANS  and  HEBREWS 


THE  HEBREW  WORLD 


50       100      1H,      200 


Map  No.  3 — SEMITIC  MIGRATIONS 


Map  No.  7 — CONTOUR    MAP    OF    GALILEE 


Map  No.  4— WILDERNESS  WANDERINGS 


Profile  at  AB 


~""T'" 


Map  No.  5— CONTOUR   MAP  OF  PALESTINE 


Map  No.  6— FINAL   LOCATION'   OF   THE   TRIBES.  1100  B.C. 


ESDRAELOX J 

AND 

LOWER  GALILEE 


-Hebrews 

*Canaanit<*s 


Map  No.  8— BATTLE    OF   THE    KISHON 


ESDRAELON 

AND 

LOWER 


7^ ^ F" 

Map  No.  11— THE   BATTLE   OF  MOUNT   GILBOA 


THE  HEBREW  WORLD 


50       100      150      3)0 


Map  No.  13— EMPIRES,    TIME    OF   DAVID,    1000   B.C. 


0         50       100      150      MO 


Map  No.  18— ASSYRIAN   ADVANCE:   WAVES   I   TO    III 


Ed 

.(1 

oo      a   g   a  j. 

w 

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2    -a  •§  -p  i 

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e    3  3  3'- 

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DDI 

Og." 

Map  No.  16— THE    KINGDOM   OF   OMRI    AND    All  A 15 


MEDITERRANEAN 
SEA 


^-^L 

ir*               BB  Israel                                                   V_     S.                 \ 

Jeroboam  II,  781-7io  B.C.                       V\     ^A«. s-^*v 

BBBBJ     BBBJu'i'1!)                                        \~"*"—— ^.         ^v 

)  \      ;■'                      Uzziah,  792-737                                                         ^1111   *""""X         >^ 
Plr               1    "  Jl  Aggvrig                                                                                                           \        $>* 

H^                             withdrawn  to  fight  Armenia                                                          V^  J? 

E30ther  Independent  States                                ^ ^O^-i- 

THE  HEBREW  WORLD  X 

n       so     ion     150    koo 

Map  No.  19— ISRAEL'S    INDIAN    SUMMER,    745   B.C. 


THE  HEBREW  WORLD 

Sole  jf  Miles 
50       100      150      200 


Map  No.  20 — ASSYRIAN   ADVANCE:   WAVES   IV  TO   VI 


MEDIA 


100      150     200 


Map  No.  21— THE    BREAK-UP   OF   ASSYRIA,   608-605   B.C. 


150     200 


Map  No.  22 — THE    BABYLONIAN   CONQUEST,   5S6   B.C. 


c^  \ 

MEDITERRANEAN    /  j 

y/ 

^4^ 

SEA                 /  p 

_,              JJ 

n 

Persia 

Y      I                  ~> 

■i 

Jewish  Province 

{5;   h              y 

Vr? 

\  \\ 

\        \      \ 

W<i* 

THE  HEBREW  WORLD  ' 

Scale  of  Mles 

0         50 

100 

150      200 

Map  No.  23— THE   PERSIAN   EMPIRE,   52.5   B.C. 


0         50       100      150      200 


Map  No.  25— THE   SYRIAN   CONQUEST,    19S   B.C. 


/_     y 


- 


^Uh   n  _  /r-  /f 


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3 


£ 


A     000  048  262     o 


